Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-rdxmf Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-25T11:03:01.396Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Between Normality and Uniqueness: Unwrapping the Enigma of Japanese Security Policy Decision-Making*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 March 2010

BRENDAN HOWE
BRENDAN HOWE*
Affiliation:
Graduate School of International Studies, Ewha Womans University 11- 1 Daehyun-Dong, Seodaemun-Gu, Seoul 120- 750, Korea Email: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

To many observers Japanese decision-making is an enigma that defies conventional analysis. Neither the traditional rational actor model of decision-making, nor alternative pluralist models proposed for the analysis of Western democracies fit the Japanese case. As a result Japanese security policy decision-making is described as ‘reactive’ or even non-existent. Likewise, the anomaly of Japanese decision-making is ultimately predicted to be resolved through a process of ‘normalization’ whereby Japanese policy formation evolves into a form that does fit these models. However, this paper contends that the fact that Japan's security decision-making does not fit commonly-used models is due rather to the limitations of those models. Japan's security policy, like that of all states, is gradually evolving, but this does not mean that it is about to become just like the West. This paper addresses how a conjuncture of external factors and internal factors has stimulated important changes in Japanese security policy-making which are frequently missed or misinterpreted by observers. In order to understand Japanese security policy-making, and to chart its future course, a refined cybernetic approach is introduced.

Type
Research Article
Information
Modern Asian Studies , Volume 44 , Issue 6 , November 2010 , pp. 1313 - 1336
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 See for instance, Kent E. Calder (1988), ‘Japanese Foreign Economic Policy Formation: Explaining the Reactive State’, World Politics, 40–4 (July); Keiko Hirata (1998), ‘Japan as a Reactivist State? Analyzing Japan's Relations with the Socialist Republic of Vietnam’, Japanese Studies, 18–2; Miyashita, Akitoshi (2003), Limits to Power: Asymmetric Dependence and Japanese Foreign Aid Policy (New York: Lexington books)Google Scholar; Green, Michael J. (2003), Japan's Reluctant Realism: Foreign Policy Challenges in an era of Uncertain Power (New York Palgrave)Google Scholar; van Wolferen, Karel (1989), The Enigma of Japanese power: People and Politics in a Stateless Nation (New York: Alfred A. Knopf)Google Scholar.

2 See Allison, Graham and Zelikow, Philip (1999), Essence of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis Second Edition (New York: Longman)Google Scholar; Snyder, R.C., Bruck, H.W. & Sapin, B. (eds) (1962), Foreign Policy Decision-Making (New York: Free Press)Google Scholar; Hosoya, Chihiro (1974), ‘Characteristics of the Foreign Policy Decision-Making System in Japan’, World Politics, Vol. 26, No. 3. (April)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Abel, Theodore (1941), ‘The Element of Decision in the Pattern of War’, American Sociological Review, VI (December)Google Scholar.

3 Van Wolferen, Karel (1989), The Enigma of Japanese power: People and politics in a stateless nation (Alfred A. Knopf: New York), p. 15Google Scholar.

4 Kent Calder (1988), ‘Japanese foreign economic policy formation: Explaining the reactive state,’ World Politics, July, pp. 517–541.

5 Ibid., pp. 518–528.

6 Hirata, Keiko (1998), ‘Japan as a reactivist state? Analyzing Japan's relations with the Socialist Republic of Vietnam’, Japanese Studies, Vol. 18, No. 2 p. 1CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 Calder, Kent (2006), ‘Halfway to hegemony: Japan's tortured trajectory’, Harvard International Review from Predicting the Present, Vol. 27, No. 3, (Fall 2005)Google Scholar, viewed 12 December 2007, http://hir.harvard.edu.

8 Koji Taira (1991), ‘Japan an imminent hegemon?’ Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, no. 513, January pp. 161–162.

9 Task Force on Foreign Relations for the Prime Minister 2002, ‘Basic strategies for Japan's foreign policy in the 21st century new era, new vision, new diplomacy’, 28 November 2002, viewed 12 December 2007, http://www.kantei.go.jp/foreign/policy/2002.

10 Mearsheimer, John (2001), The tragedy of great power politics (W.W. Norton & Company: New York), p. 382Google Scholar.

11 See Van Wolferen, K. (1989), The Enigma of Japanese power: People and politics in a stateless nation, pp. 5–26; and Green, Michael (2003), Japan's reluctant realism: Foreign policy challenges in an era of uncertain power (Palgrave: New York), p. 1Google Scholar.

12 Abel, Theodore (1941), ‘The element of decision in the pattern of war’, American Sociological Review, Vol. VI, December, p. 59Google Scholar.

13 See Allison, Graham and Zelikow, Philip (1999), Essence of decision: Explaining the Cuban missile crisis, 2nd edn, (Longman: New York)Google Scholar; and Hosoya, Chihiro (1974), ‘Characteristics of the Foreign Policy Decision-Making System in Japan’ World Politics, Vol. 26, No. 3. (April)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

14 Carr, Edward H. (1939), The Twenty Years’ Crisis. (Macmillan: London)Google Scholar.

15 Allison G. & Zelikow, P. (1999), Essence of decision, p. 32.

16 Samuels, Richard J. (2007), Securing Japan: Tokyo's grand strategy and the future of East Asia, (Cornell University Press: Ithaca), p. 1Google Scholar.

17 Taira, K. (1991), ‘Japan an imminent hegemon?’ pp. 161–162.

18 Samuels, R.J. (2007), Securing Japan: Tokyo's grand strategy and the future of East Asia.

19 Long, William (1999), ‘Nonproliferation as a goal of Japanese foreign assistance,’ Asian Survey, Vol. 39, No. 2 (March–April), pp. 328–329CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

20 Following the recommendations of a group commissioned by his predecessor Masayoshi Ohira from the National Institute for the Advancement of Research commissioned to study change in the international environment and Japan's response.

21 See Akaha, Tsuneo (1991), ‘Japan's Comprehensive Security Policy: A New East Asian Environment’, Asian Survey, Vol. 31, No. 4, AprilCrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Radtke, Kurt Werner and Feddema, Raymond (eds) (2000), Comprehensive Security in Asia: Views from Asia and the West on a Changing Security Environment, (Brill Academic Publishers)Google Scholar.

22 See Waever, Ole (1995), ‘Securitization and desecuritization’, in Lipshutz, R. (ed.) On Security, (Columbia University Press, New York)Google Scholar; and Acharya, Amitav (2002), ‘Human security: what kind for the Asia-Pacific?’, in Dickens, D (ed), The Human Face of Security: Asia-Pacific Perspectives Canberra Paper on Strategy and Defence 144, Australian National University, CanberraGoogle Scholar.

23 See Rix, Alan (1987), ‘Japan's comprehensive security and Australia’, Australian Journal of International Affairs, vol. 41, issue 2, AugustGoogle Scholar; and Edward A. Olsen (2004), ‘Homeland security: Learning from Japan,’ The Independent Institute, 18 November.

24 Singh, Bhubhindar (2002), ‘ASEAN's perceptions of Japan: Change and continuity’, Asian Survey, Vol. 42, No. 2 (March–April), p. 284CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

25 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan 2006, ‘Japan: Path of 60 Years as a Nation Striving for Peace’, viewed 20 November 2007, http://www.mofa.go.jp/policy/postwar/60th.html.

26 Allison, Graham (1971), Essence of decision (Little, Brown and Company, Boston)Google Scholar.

27 de Mesquita, Bruce Bueno (1981), The war trap, (Yale University Press: New Haven), p. 20Google Scholar.

28 Van Wolferen, K. (1989), The Enigma of Japanese power: People and politics in a stateless nation, p. 5.

29 Calder, K. (1988), ‘Japanese foreign economic policy formation: Explaining the reactive state’, pp. 529–530.

30 Simon Scott Plummer (2007), ‘Abe's resignation may herald return of money politics’, The Daily Telegraph, 13 September 2007.

31 Earth Times (2008), ‘Taro Aso succeeds Fukuda as Japan's Prime Minister’ posted 24 September 2008, viewed 22 November 2008. http://www.earthtimes.org/articles/show/233870,taro-aso-succeeds-fukuda-as-japans-prime-minister–summary.html.

32 Allison, G. & Zelikow, P. (1999), Essence of decision: Explaining the Cuban missile crisis, p. 143.

33 Ibid. p. 5.

34 Michels, Robert (1915), Political parties: A sociological study of the oligarchical tendencies of modern democracy, English translation by Paul, E & Paul, C (Free Press: New York)Google Scholar.

35 Van Wolferen, K. (1989), The Enigma of Japanese power: People and politics in a stateless nation, 8.

36 Hosoya, Chihiro (1974), ‘Characteristics of foreign policy decision-making system in Japan’, World Politics, Vol. 26, No. 3, April, p. 356CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

37 Bowen, Roger. W. (2003), Japan's dysfunctional democracy: The Liberal Democratic Party and structural corruption, (M.E. Sharpe Armonk: New York), p. 72Google Scholar.

38 Ibid. p. 73.

39 Ibid. pp. 73–87.

40 Samuels, R.J. (2007), Securing Japan: Tokyo's grand strategy and the future of East Asia, pp. 74–76.

41 Tsukasa Takamine, Okinawa National College of Technology, pers. comm., 20 August 2008.

42 Van Wolferen, K. (1989), The Enigma of Japanese power: People and politics in a stateless nation, p. 414.

43 Ibid. p. 5.

44 Ibid. p. 414.

45 Baybrooke, David and Lindblom, Charles (1969), ‘Types of Decision Making’ in Rosenau, James (ed), International Politics and Foreign Policy: A Reader in Research and Theory (The Free Press, New York), p. 233Google Scholar.

46 Cooney, Kevin J. (2007), Japan's foreign policy since 1945 (M.E. Sharpe: New York), pp. 5–6Google Scholar.

47 See Hughes, Christopher W. (2004), ‘Japan's Re-emergence as a ‘Normal’ Military power’, Adelphi Paper 368–9 (Oxford University Press for the International Institute of Strategic Studies: London), p. 41Google Scholar; Cooney, K.J. (2007), Japan's foreign policy since 1945, p. 6.

48 Otherwise known as the PKO Law.

49 Ibid. pp. 6–7.

50 Colin Joyce (2006), ‘Japan moves to shed pacifist status,’ The Daily Telegraph, 15 November 2007.

51 Senior members [Japanese Ministry of Defence], pers. comm., 13 June, 2008.

52 Alan Dupont (2005), ‘The schizophrenic superpower’, The National Interest, No. 79, Spring.

53 Ibid. pp., 43–45.

54 Van Wolferen, K. (1989), The Enigma of Japanese power: People and politics in a stateless nation, pp. 28–31.

55 Curtis, Gerald L. (1988), The Japanese way of politics (Columbia University Press: New York), pp. x–xiiGoogle Scholar.

56 Ibid.

57 Tsukasa Takamine, Okinawa National College of Technology, pers. comm., 20 August 2008

58 Van Wolferen, K. (1989), The Enigma of Japanese power: People and politics in a stateless nation, p. 45.

59 Allison, G. (1971), Essence of decision, p. 6.

60 Allison G. & Zelikow, P. (1999), Essence of decision: Explaining the Cuban missile crisis, pp. 294–295.

61 Ibid. p. 296.

62 Hosoya, C. (1974), ‘Characteristics of foreign policy decision-making system in Japan’, p. 363.

63 Tsuji, K. (1968), 458, as cited in Hosoya 1974, p. 363.

64 Hosoya, C. (1974), ‘Characteristics of foreign policy decision-making system in Japan,’ p. 366.

65 Cooney, K. (2007), Japan's foreign policy since 1945, p. 25.

66 Laver, Michael (1997), Private desires, political action: An invitation to the politics of rational choice, (Sage: London), pp. 68–71Google Scholar.

67 Van Wolferen, K. (1989), The Enigma of Japanese power: People and politics in a stateless nation, 41.

68 Yomiuri Shimbun Opinion Polls 17 and 18 February 2007.

69 Yomiuri Shimbun Opinion Polls 17 and 18 February 2007.

70 Tsukasa Takamine, Okinawa National College of Technology, pers. comm., 20 August 2008.

71 Nikkei Shimbun Opinion Polls, December 2007 and January 2008.

72 Yomiuri Shimbun Opinion Polls 19 and 20 May 2007.

73 Ministry of foreign Affairs of Japan (2008), ‘Speeches and Statements by Prime Minister’ viewed 20 March 2008 at, http://www.kantei.go.jp/foreign/hukudaspeech/2008/01/18housin_e.html.

74 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan (2008), ‘International Symposium: From Okinawa to Toyako: Dealing with Communicable Diseases As Global Human Security Threats,’ http://www.mofa.go.jp/announce/event/2008/5/1180115_934.html.

75 For development of the cybernetic modelling approach to international relations see generally Deutsch, Karl W. (1978) The Analysis of international relations, 2nd edn (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall)Google Scholar.

76 Shinoda, Tomohito (2007), Japan's Kantei Approach to Foreign and Defense Affairs (University of Washington Press: Seattle)Google Scholar.

77 In fact Aso's LDP was handed a resounding defeat in 2009 partly as a result of the Prime Minister's misreading of public concerns and priorities.

78 Michael Green (2003), Japan's reluctant realism: Foreign policy challenges in an era of uncertain power, p. 73.

79 Samuels, R.J. (2007), Securing Japan: Tokyo's grand strategy and the future of East Asia, p. 5.

80 Cooney, K. (2007), Japan's foreign policy since 1945, p. 81.

81 Senior members [Japanese Ministry of Defence] 2008, pers. comm., 13 June 2008.