¹ Sharifudin, Syed Pirzada (ed.), Foundations of Pakistan: All-India Muslim League Documents, 1906–1947, vol. II, 1924–1947 (Delhi: Metropolitan Book Co., 1982) p. 328.Google Scholar

² Dawn, 29 December 1945.Google Scholar

³ Struggle for Independence, 1857–1947: A Pictorial Record (Karachi: Pakistan Publications, 1958) pp. 92–8.Google Scholar

⁴ Jahan Ara, Shah Nawaz, Father and Daughter: A Political Autobiography (Lahore: Nigarishat, 1971) pp. 220–1.Google Scholar

⁵ Khan, Begum G. A., ‘Emancipation of Women’ in Quaid-I-Azam and Muslim Women (Islamabad: National Book Foundation, 1976) p. 45.Google Scholar

⁶ Most studies of the period ignore women's experiences entirely. Hussain, Mirza Sarfaraz, Muslim Women's Role in the Pakistan Movement (Lahore: Research Society of Pakistan, 1969) focuses on women's participation but portrays this participation as the culmination of a narrative of modernization which has the attainment of Pakistan as its point of closure. Thus, Mirza's study also conforms to the ‘grand narrative’ in historiographic terms.Google Scholar

⁷ Fatehali Devji, Faisal, ‘Gender and the Politics of Space: The Movement for Women's Reform in Muslim India, 1857–1900’ in South Asia, vol. xiv, no. 1 (1991) pp. 141–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁸ Harcourt Butler to Chelmsford, 20 April 1919Google Scholar, Chelmsford Papers (22), India Office Library, quoted by Robinson, Francis, Separatism among Indian Muslims: The Politics of the United Provinces Muslims, 1860–1923 (London: Cambridge University Press, 1974) p. 294.Google Scholar

⁹ Freitag, Sandria B., ‘Ambiguous Public Arenas and Coherent Public Practice: Kanpur Muslims, 1913–1931’ in Ewing, Katherine P. (ed.), Shari'at and Ambiguity in South Asian Islam (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988) pp. 147–53.Google Scholar

¹⁰ Robinson, , Separatism among Indian Muslims, pp. 292–6.Google Scholar

¹¹ Minault, Gail, ‘Purdah Politics: The Role of Muslim Women in Indian Nationalism, 1911–1924’ in Papanek, Hanna and Minault, (eds), Separate Worlds: Studies of Purdah in South Asia (Delhi: Chanakya, 1982) pp. 245–61.Google Scholar

¹² Mohamed, Ali, My Life, A Fragment: An Autobiographical Sketch of Maulana Mohamed Ali, edited by Iqbal, Afzal (Delhi: Seema, 1979) p. 151.Google Scholar

¹³ District Gazetteer of United Provinces and Oudh, vol. xxxvii (Lucknow, 1904) p. 69.Google Scholar

¹⁴ Jones, Violet R. and Jones, L. Bevan, Women in Islam (Lucknow: Lucknow Publishing House, 1941) pp. 211–32.Google Scholar

¹⁵ Cantwell Smith, Wilfred, Modern Islam in India: A Social Analysis (Lahore: Sh. Muhammad Ashraf, 1963 [rev. ed.]) p. 182.Google Scholar

¹⁶ See editions of Muslim University Gazette (Aligarh) between 1939 and 1942 for an ongoing debate on the problem of how to admit women to the university while still preserving the boundaries between male and female space, especially the article ‘Education of Girls in the Muslim University’, 15 July 1940.Google Scholar

¹⁷ ‘The University Convocation last year demonstrated the most impressive feature of the women candidates in Burqahs being conducted to the dais by their Lady Provost and taking their respective degrees and diplomas.’ Muslim University Gazette, 15 July 1940.Google Scholar

¹⁸ See David, Lelyveld, Aligarh's First Generation: Muslim Solidarity in British India (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978) for this and other aspects of the Aligarh ethos.Google Scholar

¹⁹ Pirzada, (ed.), Foundations of Pakistan, p. 319.Google Scholar

²⁰ Dawn, 15 December 1945.Google Scholar

²¹ Dawn, 7 September 1946.Google Scholar

²² Eastern Times, 28 May 1946.Google Scholar

²³ Eastern Times, 14 June 1946.Google Scholar

²⁴ Dawn, 6 September 1946.Google Scholar

²⁵ That is, in a state ruled by Islam or one which Islam was in conflict with its enemies.Google Scholar

²⁶ Dawn, 11 December 1945 and Eastern Times, 6 January 1946.Google Scholar

²⁷ Jinnah expressed similar sentiments to the female students at Aligarh when he advised them ‘to shed superstition and undesirable social customs but at the same time to steer clear of the evils of western civilization.’ Muslim University Gazette, 15 November 1942.Google Scholar

²⁸ Halide, Edib, Inside India (London: G. Allen & Unwin, 1937).Google Scholar

²⁹ Shah Nawaz, Mumtaz, The Heart Divided (Lahore: Mumtaz Publications, 1957).Google Scholar

³⁰ See Jahan Ara, Shah Nawaz (Mumtaz's mother), Father and Daughter, for correlations between Mumtaz's life and the narrative contained in her novel.Google Scholar

³¹ Nawaz, Mumtaz Shah, The Heart Divided, pp. 10–11.Google Scholar

³² Ibid., p. 336.

³³ Mernissi, Fatima, Beyond the Veil: Male-Female Dynamics in a Modern Muslim Society (London: Al Saqi, 1985).Google Scholar

³⁴ The state in Pakistan has, of course, frequently become embroiled in controversies centred on gender in Pakistani society. See the many examples provided by Mumtaz, Khawar and Shaheed, Farida, Women of Pakistan: Two Steps Forward, One Step Back? (Lahore: Vanguard, 1987). But it must be argued that the state's role in these cases was essentially reactive rather than proactive.Google Scholar

³⁵ See Jahan Ara Shah Nawaz, Father and Daughter, Ch. 4, as well as the frequent allusions made by the contributors to Quaid-I-Azam and Muslim Women to the sense of disillusion these women felt regarding the position of women in post-Independence (and post-Jinnah) Pakistan.Google Scholar

³⁶ See, for instance, Gilmartin, David, ‘Religious Leadership and the Pakistan Movement in Punjab’ in Modern Asian Studies, 13, 3 (1979), pp. 485–517CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Empire and Islam: Punjab and the Making of Pakistan (London: I. B. Tauris, 1988) for an illustration of how the Muslim League was able to appropriate the concerns of a very different constituency, the sujis of rural West Punjab.Google Scholar