Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-dh8gc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-07T12:32:01.358Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

The Surface—Subsoil Form of Divided Ownership in Late Imperial China: Some Examples from the New Territories of Hong Kong

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 November 2008

Extract

This paper is a study of certain aspects of land tenure in late imperial China. An extensive literature has evolved in recent years on the relationship between traditional forms of landholding and rural social structure in the irrigated rice-growing areas of southeastern and central China. In particular, the pronounced separation of‘rights to the surface’ (tianmianquan) and ‘rights to the subsoil’ (tiandiquan), which was common in many regions until its elimination as a result of the land reform campaigns of the People's Republic during the early 1950s, has attracted the interest of a growing number of sinological historians and anthropologists. I analyze here some of the principal characteristics of this traditional Chinese method of dividing property rights in land as they were found in the pre-British New Territories of Hong Kong. I also give consideration to those areas of the existing literature which seem especially relevant to my interpretation of the local manifestations of this extremely important feature of Chinese social life.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1987

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aijmer, L. G. 1967Expansion and Extension in Hakka Society’, Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 7: 4279.Google Scholar
Aijmer, L. G. 1968Being Caught by a Fishnet: On Fengshui in Southeastern China’, Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 8: 7481.Google Scholar
Armentrout, L. Eve 1976The Canton Rising of 1902–1903: Reformers, Revolutionaries, and the Second Taiping’, Modern Asian Studies 10, 1: 83105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ash, Robert 1976 Land Tenure in Pre-Revolutionary China: Kiangsu Province in the 1920s and 1930s. Contemporary China Institute Research Notes and Studies, no. 1. London: Contemporary China Institute.Google Scholar
Baker, Hugh D. R. 1966The Five Great Clans of the New Territories’, Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 6: 2547.Google Scholar
Baker, Hugh D. R. 1968 A Chinese Lineage Village: Sheung Shui. London: Frank Cass.Google Scholar
Balfour, S. F. 1970Hong Kong before the British; being a local History … before the British Occupation’, Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 10: 134–79. Reprinted from T'ien Hsia Monthly 11–12 (19401941): 330–52, 440–64.Google Scholar
Balfour, S. F.Baode Ci Shendance (Celebration Book of the Temple for the Recompense of Kindness) 1923 MS, Hong Kong.Google Scholar
Blake, C. Frederic 1975 ‘Negotiating Ethnolinguistic Symbols in a Chinese Market Town’. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Illinois. University Microfilms no. 75–24, 263.Google Scholar
Blake, C. Frederic 1981 Ethnic Groups and Social Change in a Chinese Market Town. Hawaii: The University Press of Hawaii.Google Scholar
Blake, C. FredericBlock Crown Lease Schedules 19051907 MS, Hong Kong: Hong Kong Government.Google Scholar
Boulais, Guy tr. 1924 Manuel du code chinois. Variétés Sinologiques Series, no. 55; Shanghai: Imprimerie de la Mission Catholique.Google Scholar
Bracey, Dorothy 1967 ‘The Effects of Emigration on a Hakka Village’. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation in Anthropology, Harvard University.Google Scholar
Brenner, Robert 1976Agrarian Class Structure and Economic Development in pre-Industrial Europe’, Past and Present 70: 3075.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brim, John A. 1970 ‘Local Systems and Modernizing Change in the New Territories of Hong Kong’. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation in Anthropology, Stanford University. University Microfilms, no. 71–12, 862.Google Scholar
Brim, John A. 1974 ‘Village Alliance Temples in Hong Kong’, in Religion and Ritual in Chinese Society, ed. by Wolf, Arthur P., Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Buck, J. L. 1927 Farm Ownership and Tenancy in China. Shanghai: National Christian Council.Google Scholar
Campbell, George 1912Origin and Migration of the Hakkas’, Chinese Recorder 43: 473–80.Google Scholar
Mary, Chan Man-yue 1963 ‘Chinese Revolutionaries in Hong Kong 1895–1911’. Unpublished M.A. Thesis in History, University of Hong Kong.Google Scholar
Chung-li, Chang 1955 The Chinese Gentry: Studies on Their Role in Nineteenth Century Chinese Society. Seattle: University of Washington Press.Google Scholar
Chung-li, Chang 1962 The Income of the Chinese Gentry. Seattle: University of Washington Press.Google Scholar
Fu-mei, Chang Ch'en and Myers, Ramon H. 1976Customary Law and the Economic Growth of China during the Ch'ing Period: Part 1’, Ch'ing-shih wen-ti 3, 5: 132.Google Scholar
Chen, Quan 1935 Shatian (Alluvial Fields), in Zhongguo nongcun jingji ziliao, (Materials on the Chinese Rural Economy), ed. by Feng, Hefa. Shanghai: Liming Shuju.Google Scholar
Hansheng, Chen (Chen Han-seng, Ch'en Han-sheng) 1934 Guangdong de nongcun de shengchan guanxi yu nongcun shengchanli. Guangdong: Zhongshan Wenhua Jiaoyu Guan.Google Scholar
Hansheng, Chen (Chen Han-seng, Ch'en Han-sheng) 1936 Agrarian Problems in Southernmost China. Shanghai: Kelly and Walsh Ltd.Google Scholar
Lianfeng, Chen 1978 Kejia Ren (The Hakka). Taipei: Lianya Chubanshe.Google Scholar
Qi, Cheng and others 1968 Qinding Hubu Zeli (Regulations of the Board of Revenue and Population). Facsimile of the 1865 edition. Taipei: Chengwen Chubanshe.Google Scholar
Cheshire, G. C. 1954 The Modern Law of Real Property. 7th edn, London: Butterworth. CO 129Google Scholar
Cheshire, G. C. Colonial Office, original correspondence, Hong Kong. Public Record Office, London.Google Scholar
Cohen, Myron L. 1968The Hakka or “Guest People”: Dialect as a Sociocultural Variable in Southeastern China’, Ethnohistory 15: 237–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, Paul A. 1978 ‘Christian Missions and their Impact to 1900’ in The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 10, Late Ch‘ing 1800–1911, pt 1, ed. by Fairbank, John K.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Cranmer-Byng, J. L. and Shepherd, A. 1964A Reconnaissance of Ma Wan and Lantao Islands in 1794’, Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 4: 105–19.Google Scholar
Crown Rent Rolls Land records maintained at the District Offices of the New Territories Administration. The Rolls show the various estates owned by a particular individual or group, the type of land held, the area of each lot, and the land tax (Crown Rent) payable.Google Scholar
CSO Land files of the Colonial Secretary's Office, Hong Kong. Hong Kong Record Series 58. Public Record Office, Hong Kong.Google Scholar
CSO Ext. Land files of the Colonial Secretary's Office, Hong Kong, which are concerned primarily with the land survey, the settlement of titles and other aspects of the extension of colonial administration into the New Territories, 1898–1906. Public Record Office, Hong Kong.Google Scholar
Davidson, James W. 1903 The Island of Formosa, Past and Present: the Historical View from 1430 to 1900. New York: Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davidson, James W.Despatches and other Papers 1899 Despatches and Other Papers relating to the Extension of the Colony of Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Government Printers pp. 169.Google Scholar
Eberhard, Wolfram 1962 Social Mobility in Traditional China. Leiden: E. J. BrillCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Epstein, A. L. 1969 Matupit: Land, Politics, and Change among the Tolai of New Britain. Canberra: Australian National University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eitel, E. J. 1867Ethnographical Sketches of the Hakka Chinese’, Notes and Queries on China and Japan 1: 49, 65–7, 81–3, 97–9, 113–14, 128–30, 145–6, 161–3; see also 2 (1868): 145–7, 167–9, and 3 (1869): 1–3.Google Scholar
Eitel, E. J. 1873An Outline History of the Hakkas’, China Review 2: 160–4.Google Scholar
Elvin, Mark 1970The Last Thousand Years of Chinese History: Changing Patterns in Land Tenure’, Modern Asian Studies 4, 2: 97114CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elvin, Mark 1973 The Pattern of the Chinese Past. London: Eyre MethuenGoogle Scholar
Elvin, Mark 1977 ‘Market Towns and Waterways: the County of Shang-hai from 1480 to 1910’, in The City in Late Imperial China, ed. by Skinner, G. William. Stanford; Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Endacott, G. B. 1958 A History of Hong Kong. London: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Faure, David 1978The Rural Economy of Kiangsu Province’, Journal of the Institute of Chinese Studies of the Chinese University of Hong Kong 9, 2: 365469.Google Scholar
Faure, David 1982Saikung, the Making of the District and its Experience during World War II’, Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 22: 161216.Google Scholar
Xiaotong, Fei (Fei Hsiao-t'ung) 1939 Peasant Life in China: A Field Study of Country Life in the Yangtze Valley. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, Ltd.Google Scholar
Feuchtwang, Stephan 1974 An Anthropological Analysis of Chinese Geomancy. Vientiane, Laos: Vithagna.Google Scholar
Feuerwerker, Albert 1976 State and Society in Eighteenth Century China: The Ch'ing Empire in its Glory. Michigan Papers on China no. 27. Ann Arbor: Centre for Chinese Studies.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
FO 931 Guangdong Provincial Archives (Chinese-language materials consisting primarily of items captured by British forces occupying Canton in 1858). Public Record Office, London.Google Scholar
Freedman, Maurice 1958 Lineage Organization in Southeastern China. London School of Economics Monographs on Social Anthropology, no. 18. London: Athlone Press.Google Scholar
Freedman, Maurice 1963 A Report on Social Research in the New Territories. Hong Kong: mimeo. PublishedGoogle Scholar
Freedman, Maurice 1976, Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 16: 191261.Google Scholar
Freedman, Maurice 1966A Chinese Lineage and Society: Fukien and Kwangtung. London School of Economics Monographs on Social Anthropology no. 33. London: Athlone Press.Google Scholar
Freedman, Maurice 1966B ‘Shifts of Power in the Hong Kong New Territories’, Journal of Asian and African Studies 1, 1: 312.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freedman, Maurice 1974 ‘The Politics of an Old State: A View from the Chinese Lineage’, in Choice and Change: Essays in Honour of Lucy Mair, ed. by Davis, John H. R.. London School of Economics Monographs on Social Anthropology, no. 50. London: Athlone Press.Google Scholar
Tongqin, Fu 1981 Ming-Qing shiqi de Guangdong shatian (Alluvial Fields in Guangdong during the Ming and Qing Dynasties) Xueshu Yanjiu 3: 4245.Google Scholar
Yiling, Fu 1961 Ming-Qing nongcun shehui jingji (Peasant Society and Economy during the Ming and Qing). Beijing: Sanlian Shudian.Google Scholar
Yiling, Fu 1980Capitalism in Chinese Agriculture: On the Laws Governing its Development’, Modern China 6, 3: 311–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fujian Provincial Statutes 1964 Fujian Shengli Taipei: Bank of Taiwan, Department of Economic Research Facsimile of the 1852–1872 edition.Google Scholar
Fuson, C. G. 1929The Peoples of Kwangtung: Their Origin, Migrations and Present Distribution’, Lingnam Science Journal 7: 521.Google Scholar
GDTZ 1823 Guangdong Tongzhi (A Gazetteer of Guangdong) ed. by Ruan Yuan and others.Google Scholar
Gluckman, Max 1965 The Ideas in Barotse Jurisprudence. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Gluckman, Max 1969 ‘Property Rights and Status in African Traditional Society’, in Ideas and Procedures in African Customary Law, ed. by Max, Gluckman. London: Oxford University Press for the International African Institute.Google Scholar
Grimm, Tilemann 1977 ‘Academies and Urban Systems in Kwangtung’, in The City in Late Imperial China, ed. by Skinner, G. William. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Groves, R. G. 1969Militia, Market and Lineage: Chinese Resistance to the Occupation of Hong Kong's New Territories in 1899’, Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 9: 3164.Google Scholar
Fengxiang, Guan 1971 Kanyuxue yuanli (Principles of Geomancy). Hong Kong: Baopuqi Zikanshu.Google Scholar
Shihang, Gui 1978 Wan'e de dizhu jieji (The Diabolical Landlord Class). Shanghai: Xiaonian Ertong Chubanshe.Google Scholar
Songyi, Guo 1980 Qingchu fengjian guojia kenhuang zhengce fenxi (‘An Analysis of the State Policy of Land Reclamation in Early Qing’). Qing Shi Lun Cong 2: 111–38.Google Scholar
GZFZ 1880 Guangzhou Fuzhi (A Gazetteer of Guangzhou) ed. by Dai Zhaochen and Rui Lin.Google Scholar
Hengyu, Han 1979 Shilun Qingdai qianqi diannong yongdianquan de youlai ji qi xingzhi (An Examination of the Origins and Nature of Perpetual Lease Rights in early Qing tenant farming). Qing Shi Lun Cong 1: 3753.Google Scholar
Hengyu, Han 1980 Lüelun Qingdai qianqi de dianpu zhi (‘An Observation of the Servile Tenancy in Early Qing’). Qing Shi Lun Cong 2: 89110.Google Scholar
Hayes, James 1962The Pattern of Life in the New Territories in 1898’, Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 2: 75102.Google Scholar
Hayes, James 1963Cheung Chau 1850–1898: Information from Commemorative Tablets’, Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 3: 8899.Google Scholar
Hayes, James 1964Peng Chau between 1798 and 1899’, Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 4: 7196.Google Scholar
Hayes, James 1970Old Ways of Life in Kowloon: The Cheung Sha Wan Villages’, Journal of Oriental Studies 8, 1: 154–88.Google Scholar
Hayes, James 1974The Hong Kong Region: Its Place in Traditional Chinese Historiography and Principal Events since the Establishment of Hsin-an County in 1573’, Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 14: 108–35.Google Scholar
Hayes, James 1976Rural Society and Economy in late Ch'ing: A Case Study of the New Territories of Hong Kong (Kwangtung)’, Ch'ing-shih wen-ti 3, 5: 3371.Google Scholar
Hayes, James 1977 The Hong Kong Region 1850–1911. Connecticut: Archon Books.Google Scholar
Ping-ti, Ho 1962 The Ladder of Success in Imperial China. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
HKC 1900 Hong Kong. Correspondence (20 June 1898, to 20 August 1900) respecting the Extension of the Boundaries of the Colony. Eastern no. 66–A confidential print (CO 882) for the use of the Colonial Office. Public Record Office, London.Google Scholar
Hong Kong Government Gazette A government publication which contains official notices and that has been available since the mid-1850s.Google Scholar
HKWP Hong Kong Weekly Press (a reprint of material from the Hong Kong Daily Press, a Hong Kong English-language daily newspaper).Google Scholar
Hoang, P. 1897 Notions techniques sur la propriété en Chine avec un choix d'actes et de documents officiels. Variéteś Sinologiques, no. 11, Shanghai: Imprimerie de la Mission Catholique.Google Scholar
Kung-chuan, Hsiao 1960 Rural China: Imperial Control in the Nineteenth Century. Seattle: University of Washington Press.Google Scholar
Kuo-ching, Hsieh 1929Removal of the Coastal Population in the Early Tsing Period’, The Chinese Social and Political Science Review 13: 559–96.Google Scholar
Entong, Huang 1846 Yuedong Shengli Xinzuan (The Statutes Specially Applicable to the Province of Guangdong).Google Scholar
Kim-bing, Hui 1963 ‘The Re-occupation of the Coastal Lands and how the Local Government Sought to Repair the Ravages wrought by the Compulsory Evacuation Schemes’, in Hong Kong and its External Communications before 1842, ed. by Lo, Hsiang-lin. Hong Kong: Institute of Chinese Culture.Google Scholar
George, Jamieson, and others 1888Tenure of Land in China and the Condition of the Rural Population’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, North China Branch (Shanghai), N.S., 23: 59174.Google Scholar
Luo, Jiang 1935 Guangdong Hua Xian nongcun jingji gaikuang (A General Outline of the Rural Economy of Hua Xian, Guangdong Province). Zhongguo Nongcun 1, 4: 431–40 (6170).Google Scholar
Kamm, J. T. 1977Two Essays on the Ch'ing Economy of Hsin-an, Kwangtung’, Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 17: 5584.Google Scholar
Kawada, Shiro 1928The Tenant System of Formosa’, Kyoto University Economic Review 3, 2: 84146.Google Scholar
Kemp, Jeremy 1981Legal and Informal Land Tenures in Thailand’, Modern Asian Studies 15, 1: 123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kroker, Edward 1959The Concept of Property in Chinese Customary Law’, Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, 3rd Series 7: 123–46.Google Scholar
Krone, Rev. Mr 1967A Notice of the Sanon District’, Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 7: 104–37. (Originally published in Transactions, China Branch Royal Asiatic Society, 6 (1859): 71–105).Google Scholar
Kuhn, Philip A. 1970 Rebellion and its Enemies in Late Imperial China; Militarization and Social Structure 1796–1864. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Lethbridge, H. J. 1978 Hong Kong: Stability and Change. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Wenzhi, Li 1981 Lun Zhongguo dizhu jingji zhidu yu nongye ziben zhuyi mengya (A Discussion of China's Landlord Economic System and the Seeds of Capitalism in Agriculture). Xinhua Wenzhai 3: 92–8.Google Scholar
Liao, D. K. 1928Land Tenure Systems in China’, Chinese Economic Journal 2, 6: 457–74.Google Scholar
T'ai-ch'u, Liao 1940School Land: A Problem of Educational Finance’, The Yenching Journal of Social Studies 2, 2: 212–33.Google Scholar
Jidong, Lin and others 1963 Falu Cidian (Dictionary of Law). Taipei: Zhonghua Congshu Weiyuan Hui.Google Scholar
Boji, Liu 1939 Guangdong Shuyuan Zhidu Yange (Institutional History of the Local Academies in Guangdong). Changsha: Commercial Press.Google Scholar
Zuoren, Liu 1959 Jinshan zhuang de yanjiu (Research into the Californian Merchants’ Guild), Zhongguo Jingji (The China Economist) no. 101: 2022.Google Scholar
Yongcheng, Liu 1979 Qingdai qianqi diannong kangzu douzheng de xinfazhan (New Developments in Rent Resistance Struggles in Early Qing Agrarian Tenancy). Qing Shi Lun Cong 1: 5478.Google Scholar
Yongcheng, Liu 1980 Qingdai qianqi de nongye zudian guanxi (The Agrarian Tenancy in Early Qing). Qing Shi Lun Cong 2: 5688.Google Scholar
Hsiang-lin, Lo 1933 Kejia Yanjiu Daolun (Researches on the Hakka). Xingning: Xishan Shuzang.Google Scholar
Hsiang-lin, Lo 1965 Kejia Shiliao Huibian (Historical Sources for the Study of the Hakkas). Hong Kong: Institute of Chinese Culture.Google Scholar
Hsiang-lin, Lo 1971 Xianggang zaoqi zhi dashi shiji yu Xianggang jianshe zhi guanxi (Masonry and the Development of Hong Kong). Shihuo Yuehan N.S. (19), Dec.: 459–63.Google Scholar
Lockhart, Stewart 1900 Report by Mr Stewart Lockhart on the Extension of the Colony of Hong Kong (Lockhart Report 1898), 8 Oct. 1898. in Eastern no. 66, Colonial Office (see above, HKC).Google Scholar
Chiying, Ma 1972 Shijing Jinzhu Jinyi (The Book of Odes, Translated into Modern Chinese, with Notes). Taipei: Commercial Press.Google Scholar
Yingrong, Mai 1941 Guangzhou wuxian qianhai shilüe (A brief Account of the Clearance of the Coast of the Five Districts around Canton). Guangdong Wenwu 2: 408–17.Google Scholar
McAleavy, Henry 1958Dien in China and Vietnam’, Journal of Asian Studies 17, 3: 403–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taylor, Meadows Thomas 1847Land Tenure in China’, Transactions of the China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 1: 115.Google Scholar
Megarry, Robert and Wade, H. W. R. 1975 The Law of Real Property. Fourth Edition, London: Stevens and Sons Ltd.Google Scholar
Megarry, Robert and Wade, H. W. R.Memorandum of Work Done in the Land Office 1900 Memorandum of Work Done in the Land Office, Hong Kong, in Respect of the New Territories for the Year 1899. Appendix No. 8 in Hong Kong, Report on the New Territory during the First year of British Administration. Hong Kong: Government Printers, pp. 26–8.Google Scholar
Megarry, Robert and Wade, H. W. R.Memorandum on … Chinese Law Regarding Land 1900 Memorandum on Land: Chinese Law Regarding Land. Appendix No. 3 in Hong Kong, Report on the New Territory during the First Tear of British Administration. Hong Kong: Government Printers, pp. 1518Google Scholar
Ministry of Justice 1930 Minshangshi xiguan diaocha baogaolu (Report of the Survey of Civil and Commercial Customs among the People). Reprinted, Taipei: Zhonghua Shuju.Google Scholar
MJQA n.d. (?1978) Minjian Qi'an (Strange Cases from among the People). Macau: Xinshen Chubanshe.Google Scholar
Muramatsu, Yuji 1969A Documentary Study of Chinese Landlordism in Late Ch'ing and Early Republican Kiangnan’, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 29: 570–2.Google Scholar
Nelson, H. G. H. 1969 ‘British Land Administration in the New Territories of Hong Kong and its Effects on Chinese Social Organization’. Unpublished paper presented at the London-Cornell Project for East and Southeast Asian Studies Conference, Adèle en Haut, 24–30 August.Google Scholar
Nelson, H. G. H. 1971 Review of H. D. R. Baker: ‘A Chinese Lineage Village: Sheung Shui’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland no. 1: 1014.Google Scholar
Nelson, H. G. H.New Territories: Land Court, Report on Work from 1900 to 1905.Google Scholar
Nelson, H. G. H. 1906 Main Report by J. R. Wood; with reports by C. McI. Messer, Cecil Clementi and J. R. Wood, In Sessional Papers (Papers presented to the Legislative Council of Hong Kong). Hong Kong: Government Printers, pp. 143–52.Google Scholar
Ng, Peter Y. L. 1961 ‘The 1819 Edition of the Hsin-an Hsien-chih: A Critical Examination with Translation and Notes’. M.A. Thesis, University of Hong Kong.Google Scholar
Ng, Peter Y. L. 1983 New Peace County: A Chinese Gazetteer of the Hong Kong Region (prepared for press with additional material by Hugh D. R. Baker). Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.Google Scholar
Guangdan, Pan and Weitian, Quan 1952 Su-Nan tudi gaige fangwen ji (Investigations into Land Reform in South Kiangsu). Beijing: Sanlian Shudian.Google Scholar
Potter, Jack M. 1968 Capitalism and the Chinese Peasant: Social and Economic Change in a Hong Kong Village. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Potter, Jack M. 1969 ‘The Structure of Rural Chinese Society in the New Territories,’ in Hong Kong: A Society in Transition, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.Google Scholar
Pratt, Jean A. 1960Emigration and Unilineal Descent Groups: A Study of Marriage in a Hakka Village in the New Territories, Hong Kong’, Eastern Anthropologist 13: 147–58.Google Scholar
Pratt, Jean A.Protest by Whitehad 1900 Protest by Whitehad against ‘The Summoning of Chinese Ordinance’ (No. 40 of 1899), and the Colonial Secretary's Memorandum Thereon. In Sessional papers (Papers presented to the Legislative Council of Hong Kong): Government Printers, pp. 107–28.Google Scholar
Dajun, Qu 1974 Guangdong Xinyu (New Tales of Guangdong). Facsimile of 1700 edition. Hong Kong: Zhonghua Shuju.Google Scholar
Rawski, Evelyn S. 1972 Agricultural Change and the Peasant Economy of South China. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rawski, Evelyn S.Report from the Land Commission 1887 Report from the Hong Kong Land Commission on the History of the Sale, Tenure and Use of the Crown Land of the Colony, In Sessional Papers (Papers presented to the Legislative Council of Hong Kong). Hong Kong: Government Printers, pp. 457 ff.Google Scholar
Rawski, Evelyn S.Report on the New Territory during the First Year of British Administration. 1900 Hong Kong: Government Printers, pp. 141.Google Scholar
Rawski, Evelyn S.Report on the New Territory for the Year 1900. 1901 In Sessional Papers, no. 38 (Papers presented to the Legislative Council of Hong Kong). Hong Kong: Government Printers, pp. 565 ff.Google Scholar
Rawski, Evelyn S.Report on the New Territories for the Years 1899 to 1912. 1912 In Sessional Papers, no. 11. (Papers presented to the Legislative Council of Hong Kong). Hong Kong: Government Printers, pp. 43 ff.Google Scholar
Rhoads, Edward J. M. 1975 China's Republican Revolution: 1895–1913. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Schiffrin, Harold Z. 1968 Sun Yat-sen and the Origins of the Chinese Revolution. Berkeley: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
SCMP South China Morning Post. An English language daily newspaper published in Hong Kong.Google Scholar
Shillinglaw, Geoffrey 1974 ‘Land Reform and Peasant Mobilization in Southern China, 1947–1950’, in Agrarian Reform and Agrarian Reformism, ed. by David, Lehman. London: Faber and Faber.Google Scholar
Kwok-kin, Siu 1979Ma Wan’, Journal of the Hong Kong Archaeological Society 8: 24–6.Google Scholar
Skinner, G. William 1964Marketing and Social Structure in Rural China, Part i’, Journal of Asian Studies 24: 343.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skinner, G. William 1976 ‘Mobility Strategies in Late Imperial China: A Regional Systems Analysis’, in Regional Analysis, Vol 1, Economic Systems, ed. by Smith, Carol A., New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Skinner, G. William 1977 ‘Cities and the Hierarchy of Local Systems’, in The City in Late Imperial China, ed. by Skinner, G. William. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Skinner, G. William 1979 ‘Introduction’, in The Study of Chinese Society: Essays by Maurice Freedman, ed. by Skinner, G. William. Stanford; Stanford Univeristy Press.Google Scholar
Some Notes … 1901 ‘Some Notes on Land Tenure in the New Territory’, Appendix no. 1 to Hong Kong, Report on the New Territory for the Year 1900, in Sessional Papers, pp. 565 et seq., and in GN 446 in Hong Kong Government Gazette, 17 August 1901.Google Scholar
Ming-wo, Soo 1981 ‘Christianity in a Colonial and Chinese Context’. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, London University.Google Scholar
Sparks, Douglas 1976The Teochiu: Ethnicity in Urban Hong Kong’, Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 16: 2556.Google Scholar
Staunton, George Thomas, tr. 1810 Ta Tsing Leu Lee: Being the Fundamental Laws, and a Selection from the Supplementary Statutes, of the Penal Code of China. London: Cadell and Davies.Google Scholar
Hok-p'ang, Sung 1935Legends and Stories of the New Territories, III, Kam Tin’, Hong Kong Naturalist 6, 3/4: 213–18.Google Scholar
Hok-p'ang, Sung 1936A ‘Legends and Stories of the New Territories, III, Kam Tin (continued)’, Hong Kong Naturalist 7, 1: 31–6.Google Scholar
Hok-p'ang, Sung 1936B ‘Legends and Stories of the New Territories, III, Kam Tin (continued)’, Hong Kong Naturalist 7, 3/4: 159–62.Google Scholar
Hok-p'ang, Sung 1938 ‘Ts’ in Fuk (), Being an Account of how Part of the Coast of South China was Cleared of Inhabitants from the First Year of Hong Hei () 1662 to the 8th year of Hong Hei 1669’, Hong Kong Naturalist 9, 1/2: 3742.Google Scholar
Thaxton, Ralph 1975Tenants in Revolution: The Tenacity of Traditional Morality’, Modern China 1, 3: 323–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Topley, Marjorie D. 1954Chinese Women's Vegetarian Houses in Singapore,’ Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 25: 149–60.Google Scholar
Vogel, Ezra 1969 Canton under Communism: Programs and Politics in a Provincial Capital, 1949–1968. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Wakeman, Frederic Jr. 1966 Strangers at the Gate: Social Disorder in South China 1839–1861. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Yeh-chien, Wang 1973 Land Taxation in Imperial China, 1750–1911. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Watson, James L. 1975 Emigration and the Chinese Lineage. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Watson, James L. 1977Hereditary Tenancy and Corporate Landlordism in Traditional China: A Case Study’, Modern Asian Studies 11, 2: 161–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jinyu, Wei 1963 Ming-Qing shidai diannong de nongnu diwei (The Servile Tenant Status among Tenants during the Ming and Qing Dynasties). Lishi Yanjiu 5; 109–34.Google Scholar
Welch, Holmes 1967 The Practice of Chinese Buddhism 1900–1950, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Wesley-Smith, Peter 1980 Unequal Treaty 1898–1997: China, Great Britain and Hong Kong's New Territories. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Wickberg, Edgar 1965 The Chinese in Philippine Life 1850–1898. New Haven, Conn, and London: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Wickberg, Edgar 1970 ‘Late Nineteenth Century Land Tenure in North Taiwan’, in Taiwan: Studies in Chinese Local History, ed. by Leonard, Gordon. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Wickberg, Edgar 1981 ‘Continuities in Land Tenure, 1900–1940’, in The Anthropology of Taiwanese Society, ed. by Ahern, E. and Gates, H.. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Wolf, Arthur P. 1968Adopt a Daughter-in-law, Marry a Sister: A Chinese Solution to the Problem of the Incest Taboo’, American Anthropologist, 70, 5: 864–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wright, Arnold and Cartwright, H. A. 1908 Twentieith Century Impressions of Hong Kong, Shanghai and other Treaty Ports. London: Lloyds Greater Britain Publishing Company.Google Scholar
Liangkai, Wu 1979 Qingdai Qianlong shiqi nongye jingji guanxi de yanbian he fazhan (Development and Change in Agrarian Economic Relations during the Qianlong Reign Period of the Qing Dynasty). Qing Shi Lun Cong 1: 536.Google Scholar
XAXZ 1819 Xin'an Xianzhi (Xin'an County Gazetteer), compiled by Wang Chongxi, Shu Maoguan and others.Google Scholar
XSXZ 1751 Xiangshan Xianzhi (Xiangshan County Gazetteer), compiled by Bao Yu and Li Zhuokuai.Google Scholar
Tiantai, Xu 1941 Fujian zudian zhidu yanjiu (A Study of Tenancy Systems in Fujian). Fujian Wenhua Jikan 1, 1: 5980.Google Scholar
Yang, C. K. 1959 A Chinese Village in Early Communist Transition. Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T. PressGoogle Scholar
Yang, C. K. 1967 Religion in Chinese Society: A Study of Contemporary Social Functions of Religion and some of their Historical Factors. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Guozhen, Yang 1981 Shilun Qingdai Minbei minjian de tudi maimai (An Attempted Discussion of Transactions in Land among the People of Northern Fujian during the Qing. ZhongguoShi Yanjiu, 1: 2941.Google Scholar
ZHMG 1964 Geming zhi changdao yu fazhan—Xingzhonghui (The Origins and Development of the Revolution—the Xingzhong Hui Phase). In Zhonghua Minguo Kaiguo Wushinian Wenxian (Papers for the Fiftieth Anniversary of the Founding of the Republic) Series 1, vol. 9; compiled by Zhonghua Minguo Kaiguo Wushinian Wenxian Bianzuan Weiyuan Hui. Taipei: Zhengzhong Shuju.Google Scholar