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Redefining Wartime Chongqing: International capital of a global power in the making, 1938–46*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 May 2017

VINCENT K. L. CHANG  and
YONG ZHOU
VINCENT K. L. CHANG
Affiliation:
College of History and Cultural Studies, Southwest University, Chongqing, China Email: [email protected]
YONG ZHOU
Affiliation:
College of History and Cultural Studies, Southwest University, Chongqing, China Email: [email protected]
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Abstract

This article examines the historical role and legacy of the foreign establishment in China's temporary capital Chongqing during the Chinese War of Resistance against Japan and the Second World War. This extraordinary episode, lasting from 1938 to 1946, ushered in a new era for China's foreign diplomacy and laid the foundation for its rise to world-power status. Placing Chongqing at the very heart of this epochal chapter in modern Chinese history, this article describes the major events, trends, and actors that directly or indirectly were instrumental to China's wartime transformation from a partitioned, de facto colony to a first-rate global power with a permanent seat among the ‘Big Five’. Seventy years after the end of the Second World War, this article presents fresh perspectives on a near-forgotten episode of China's war experience. Moving beyond the traditional typecasting of ‘Chungking’ as a primitive backwater in China's remote hinterland, this article reappraises wartime Chongqing as a major international centre at the spearhead of global change and as an important cradle of the modern power that China is today.

Type
Research Article
Information
Modern Asian Studies , Volume 51 , Issue 3 , May 2017 , pp. 577 - 621
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Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2017 

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Footnotes

*

An earlier version of this article was presented at the Fifth International Conference on the Joint Research of the Sino-Japanese War, held at Chongqing, China, in September 2013. The authors like to thank the participants to the conference and the two anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments and suggestions.

References

1 Thomas, G. H., An American in China 1936–1939: A Memoir, Greatrix Press, New York, 2004, pp. 195–6Google Scholar.

2 For first-hand contemporary descriptions of wartime Chongqing, see the literature listed in notes 3–8 below. Vivid perspectives on Chongqing's backward conditions are also included in McIsaac, L., ‘The city as nation: creating a wartime capital in Chongqing’, in Remaking the Chinese City: Modernity and National Identity, 1900–1950, Esherick, J. W. (ed.), University of Hawai'i Press, Honolulu, 2002, pp. 174–81Google Scholar.

3 Snow, E. P., The Battle for Asia, World Publishing Co., Cleveland, 1944, p. 155 Google Scholar.

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5 Chuikov, V. I., Mission to China: Memoirs of a Soviet Military Adviser to Chiang Kai-shek, EastBridge, Norwalk, 2004, pp. 28–9Google Scholar.

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7 Hahn, E., China to Me: A Partial Autobiography, Doubleday, New York, 1944, p. 117 Google Scholar.

8 In addition to those mentioned in previous notes, examples of such dedicated memoirs include: Lin, A., Dawn over Chungking, New York, The John Day Company, 1941 Google Scholar; Han, S., Destination Chungking, Little, Brown and Company, Boston, 1942 Google Scholar; Karaka, D. F., Chungking Diary, Thacker, Bombay, 1943 Google Scholar; Nelson, D., Journey to Chungking, Augsburg Publishing House, Minneapolis, 1945 Google Scholar; Payne, R., Chungking Diary, William Heinemann, London, 1945 Google Scholar; Thaï, V., Ancestral Voices: Recollections of Chungking, August—December 1943, Collins, London, 1956 Google Scholar. Other important first-hand accounts dealing with wartime Chongqing include: Farmer, R., Shanghai Harvest: Three Years in the China War, Museum Press, London 1945 Google Scholar; White, T. H. and Jacoby, A., Thunder out of China, Victor Gollancz Ltd, London, 1947 Google Scholar; Miles, M. E., A Different Kind of War, Doubleday & Co., New York, 1967 Google Scholar; Menon, K. P. S., Twilight in China, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay, 1972 Google Scholar; Rothschild, R., La Chute de Chiang Kai-shek: Souvenirs d'un Diplomate en Chine, 1944–1949, Fayard, Paris, 1972 Google Scholar; Fairbank, J. K., Chinabound: A Fifty-year Memoir, Harper and Row Publishers, New York, 1982 Google Scholar; Yardley, H. O., The Chinese Black Chamber: An Adventure in Espionage, Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1983 Google Scholar; Guillermaz, J., Une Vie pour la Chine, Jacques Guillermaz, Laffont, Paris, 1989 Google Scholar.

9 A notable, recent exception, appearing at the time of completion of this manuscript, is Mitter, R., China's War with Japan, 1937–1945: The Struggle for Survival, Allen Lane, London, 2013 Google Scholar, which offers valuable perspectives on Chongqing in the overall context of China's wartime experience.

10 In addition to protection from aerial attacks offered by Chongqing's ubiquitous and infamous fog, the city's hilly geography and rocky foundation was perfectly suited for the construction of air-raid shelters. McIsaac, ‘The city as nation’, p. 176.

11 Colonel H. J. D. de Fremery, a Dutch military observer in China who had previously served as adviser to Chiang Kai-shek, reported extensively on Chongqing's favourable geography and natural defence qualities. Teitler, G. and Radtke, K. W., A Dutch Spy in China: Reports on the First Phase of the Sino-Japanese War, Brill, Leiden, Boston and Cologne, 1999, pp. 268–70Google Scholar (Report No. 22).

12 Zhou, Y. (ed.), Chongqing kangzhan shi, 1931–1945 [A History of Chongqing during the War of Resistance against Japan, 1931–1945], Chongqing Publishing House, Chongqing, 2005, pp. 121–2Google Scholar.

13 Ibid., pp. 123–4; Zhonghua minguo waijiao dashi ri zhi [National Foreign Affairs Annals of the Republic of China], 20 November 1938 and 1 December 1938.

14 The story of Wuhan has been compellingly told in MacKinnon, S. R., Wuhan, 1938: War, Refugees, and the Making of Modern China, University of California Press, Berkeley, Los Angeles and London, 2008 Google Scholar. The final chapter of the book deals with the international dimensions of the Wuhan episode, which in various ways—despite many differences—prefigured developments during the subsequent period in Chongqing.

15 Chongqingshi yuzhongqu renmin zhengfu difangzhi bianzuan weiyuanhui, Chongqingshi shizhongqu zhi [Chongqing Central City Districts Annals], Chongqing Publishing House, Chongqing, 1997, pp. 16–17.

16 On 5 May 1939, a central-government mandate placed Chongqing under the direct control of the Executive Yuan and elevated its status to that of special municipality. The city was officially designated auxiliary capital (peidu) on 6 September 1940, effective 1 October 1940. On 5 February 1946, on the eve of the relocation of the capital to Nanjing, Chiang Kai-shek declared Chongqing a ‘permanent’ auxiliary capital. Zhou, Chongqing kangzhan shi, 1931–1945, pp. 2, 125.

17 The Chinese Ministry of Information, China Handbook 1937–1943: A Comprehensive Survey of Major Developments in China in Six Years of War, W. Newman & Co., Calcutta, 1943, pp. 792–4Google Scholar.

18 Countries with a pre-existing consular presence in Chongqing were Britain (since 1891), France (since March 1896), Japan (since May 1896), the United States of America (since December 1896), and Germany (since 1904). Sichuan sheng renmin zhengfu difangzhi bianzuan weiyuanhui, Sichuan sheng zhi, waishi zhi [Sichuan Province Foreign Affairs Annals], Chengdu, Bashu Press, 2000, pp. 34–46; Chongqing waishi bianzuan weiyuanhui, Chongqing waishi zhi [Chongqing Foreign Affairs Annals], Chongqing, 2005, pp. 16–24.

19 Soon after the British pioneer and merchant Archibald J. Little in 1898 had successfully navigated the first steamship beyond the gorges to Chongqing, foreign gunboats appeared on the upper reaches of the Yangtze. The first to send their warships to Chongqing were the British, whose HMS Woodcock and HMS Woodlark called at the inland port in 1900, followed by the French gunboat Olry in 1901, the German SMS Vaterland in 1907, the Japanese Fushimi in 1911, and the American USS Palos in 1914. Tolley, K., Yangtze Patrol: The U.S. Navy in China, Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, 1971, pp. 50, 264Google Scholar.

20 Well-known foreign firms represented in Chongqing before the onset of war in 1937 included the Arnold Karberg Co.; the Asiatic Petroleum Company; Barry & Dodwell; Brunner, Mond & Company; Butterfield & Swire; Jardine Matheson; MacKenzie & Company; and the Standard Oil Company.

21 Foreign missionaries appeared in Chongqing well before its designation as treaty port, probably as early as in the first half of the seventeenth century. By 1890, there were already six Christian missions in the city: the Roman Catholic Mission (since 1753), the China Inland Mission (since 1874), the Methodist Episcopal Mission (since 1882), the National Bible Society of Scotland (since 1882), the Friends Foreign Mission Association (since 1886), and the London Missionary Society (since 1887). In 1892, the Canadian Methodist Mission (later United Church of Canada Mission) arrived in Chongqing. Except for the London Mission, which in 1910 was taken over by the Canadian Methodist Mission, all these foreign missions were still present in Chongqing by the time the war broke out. In 1937, there were approximately 85 foreign missionaries in the greater Chongqing area, comprising the central Yuzhong peninsula, the north bank of the Jialing River, and the south bank of the Yangtze. Blakiston, T. W., Five Months on the Yang-tsze, John Murray, London, 1862, p. 211 Google Scholar; Little, A. J., Through the Yang-tse Gorges—Or, Trade and Travel in Western China, Sampson Low, London, 1888, pp. 231–2Google Scholar, 245, 256, 308; Veals, H., ‘The churches of Chungking’ and ‘Chungking chronology’, in The West China Missionary News, vol. XL, no. 5, May 1939 (‘Special Chungking Number’), pp. 199–204 Google Scholar; Chongqing Central City Districts Annals, pp. 9–10, 654; Chongqing Foreign Affairs Annals, pp. 1–3.

22 T. Uchida, ‘Senji shuto jûkyô shi no gaikoku-jin kyojûsha tachi’ [‘Foreign residents in the wartime capital of Chongqing’], unpublished manuscript, section 1.2.

23 Based on statistics of the Chongqing Police Bureau, as published in China Handbook 1943, pp. 792–5.

24 Chinese Ministry of Information, China Handbook 1937–1944: A Comprehensive Survey of Major Developments in China in Seven Years of War, W. Newman & Co., Calcutta, 1944, p. 468 Google Scholar.

25 Peck, Two Kinds of Time, p. 610.

26 ‘Sing Sing cafe tempts Yanks in Chungking’, The Sunday Morning Star, Wilmington, Delaware, 3 October 1943, p. 8. On the Sing Sing café, the Moscow café, and other popular eateries in wartime Chongqing, also see Karaka, Chungking Diary, pp. 140–1, 187–9; Peck, Two Kinds of Time, p. 414; J. P. Davies, Jr, Dragon by the Tail: American, British, Japanese, and Russian Encounters with China and One Another, Norton, New York, 1972, pp. 245–6.

27 F. Tillman Durdin, ‘China swings to right, but only in traffic rules’, New York Times, 2 January 1946; Menon, Twilight in China, p. 142.

28 These numbers only include those officers with formal diplomatic ranks such as ambassadors, ministers, counsellors, secretaries, attachés, and commissioners, but exclude the non-diplomatic staff enlisted by the various foreign diplomatic posts such as chancellors and clerks. Hence, the total numbers of foreign nationals working at Chongqing's diplomatic missions would have been slightly larger than presented here. See Diplomatic lists of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China, 1937–45; Academia Sinica, 11-POR-00228, 11-POR-00229, 11-POR-00230, 11-POR-00233, 11-POR-00234, 11-POR-00235, 11-POR-00236; Council of International Affairs, The Chinese Year Book, 1937, The Commercial Press Ltd, Shanghai, 1937, pp. 1292–3; Council of International Affairs, The Chinese Year Book, 1938–39, The Commercial Press Ltd, Shanghai, 1939, pp. 726–7; Council of International Affairs, The Chinese Year Book, 1940, The Commercial Press Ltd, Chongqing, 1941, pp. 799–800; Council of International Affairs, The Chinese Year Book, 1943, Thacker & Co., Bombay, 1943, pp. 842–50; Council of International Affairs, The Chinese Year Book, 1944–1945, China Daily Tribune Publishing, Shanghai, pp. 1127–34.

29 Only the German, Soviet Russian, and United States of America ambassadors were permanently based in Wuhan. In addition, Britain, France, Italy, Belgium, and the Netherlands posted lower-ranking representatives in Wuhan, while the heads of their respective missions remained in Beijing and Shanghai. Thus, of the 22 embassies and legations comprising China's foreign diplomatic body in 1938, only eight maintained some level of official representation in Wuhan. See Dutch National Archives, NA 2.05.90/161 (letter dated 13 June 1938 from the Dutch minister to China at Beiping, G. W. Baron de Vos van Steenwijk, to the Dutch Foreign Minister, pp. 8–9); DNA 2.05.90/159, 2.05.90/951 (letters dated 30 July and 19 August 1938 from the Dutch legation secretary at Chongqing, H. Bos, to the Dutch minister to China at Beiping, G. W. Baron de Vos van Steenwijk).

30 Ibid.

31 Dutch National Archives, NA 2.05.90/159 (letter dated 19 August 1938 from the Dutch legation secretary at Chongqing, H. Bos, to the Dutch minister to China at Beiping, G. W. Baron de Vos van Steenwijk, p. 2).

32 For an extensive recent study on the Chongqing bombings, see Pan, X., Kangri zhanzheng shiqi Chongqing dahongzha yanjiu [A Study on the ‘Great Bombing’ of Chongqing during the War of Resistance against Japan], National Achievements Library of Philosophy and Social Sciences, The Commercial Press, Beijing, 2013 Google Scholar. For helpful English accounts of the bombings of Chongqing, see Maeda, T., ‘Strategic bombing of Chongqing by imperial Japanese army and naval forces’, in Bombing Civilians: A Twentieth-century History, Tanaka, Y. and Young, M. B. (eds), The New Press, New York, 2009, pp. 135–53Google Scholar; Tow, E., ‘The great bombing of Chongqing and the anti-Japanese war, 1937–1945’, in The Battle for China: Essays on the Military History of the Sino-Japanese War of 1937–1945, Peatty, M., Drea, E. J., and van den Ven, H. (eds), Stanford University Press, Stanford, 2011, pp. 256–82Google Scholar.

33 Farmer, Shanghai Harvest, pp. 209, 233–4; F. Tillman Durdin, ‘Embassies ruined in Chungking raid’, New York Times, 5 May 1939; F. Tillman Durdin, ‘Chungking is fighting vast fire, started by the Japanese bombings’, New York Times, 6 May 1939. On the May 1939 bombings of Chongqing, see also Han, Destination Chungking, pp. 210–40; Tolley, Yangtze Patrol, pp. 265–6; Yardley, Chinese Black Chamber, pp. 92–100; Tow, ‘The great bombing’, pp. 260–1; and, more recently, Mitter, China's War with Japan, pp. 1–5, 174–6.

34 F. Tillman Durdin, ‘Japanese again bomb Chungking’, New York Times, 7 July 1939; ‘British warship bombed’, New York Times, 8 July 1939; ‘Consulates torn in Chungking raid’, New York Times, 5 August 1939; ‘Belgian embassy hit in raid on Chungking’, New York Times, 6 August 1939.

35 Yang, X. and Liu, J. (eds), The Photo Collection about [the] Chongqing Massive Bombing[s] [Chongqing dahongzha tuji], Chongqing Publishing House, Chongqing, 2001, pp. 5–6, 37–41Google Scholar; Peck, Two Kinds of Time, pp. 57, 63; F. Tillman Durdin, ‘Incendiary bombs blast Chungking’, New York Times, 20 August 1940; Tow, ‘The great bombing’, p. 261.

36 Hahn, China to Me, p. 192; Yardley, Chinese Black Chamber, p. 211; Yang and Liu, The Photo Collection, pp. 36, 44; ‘Russian Embassy in Chungking wrecked’, Daytona Beach Morning Journal, 12 June 1940, p. 4; ‘Japanese renew Chungking raids’, New York Times, 29 May 1940; F. Tillman Durdin, ‘Chungking raided again’, New York Times, 11 June 1940; ‘Chungking suffers heaviest bombing’, New York Times, 13 June 1940; ‘Largest raid so far hurled on Chungking’, New York Times, 27 June 1940; ‘American hospital in Chungking bombed’, New York Times, 29 June 1940.

37 Academia Sinica, 11-POR-00230; Peck, Two Kinds of Time, p. 419.

38 In early 1946, the foreign diplomatic corps in Chongqing comprised 18 embassies (Argentina, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Czechoslovakia, France, Great Britain, Iran, Italy, Mexico, the Netherlands, Norway, Peru, Poland, the Soviet Union, Turkey, the United States of America), three legations (Australia, Portugal, Sweden), and one agency-general (India). See Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China, Liste Diplomatique, January 1946.

39 For a detailed study of the history and abolition of extraterritoriality in China, see Fishel, W. R., The End of Extraterritoriality in China, University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1952 Google Scholar.

40 These countries included, in chronological order of the relevant announcements: Canada, Brazil, Norway, and the Netherlands; China Handbook 1943, pp. 180–1, 184–5, 190–1; China Handbook 1944, p. 491; ‘Belgium waives rights in China’, New York Times, 20 November 1942.

41 China Handbook 1943, pp. 178–90; The Chinese Year Book, 1943, pp. 277–97; Kai-shek, Chiang (ed. and trans. Kao, George), The Collected Wartime Messages of Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, 1937–1945, two volumes, The John Day Company, New York, 1946, pp. 734–7Google Scholar; Chiang Kai-shek, China's Destiny, MacMillan, New York, 1947, pp. vii–viii, 86–92, 140–1, 143; Tong, H. K. (ed. Mih, W. C.), Chiang Kai-shek's Teacher and Ambassador, Author House, Bloomington, 2005, pp. 123–4Google Scholar.

42 For a helpful account of the negotiations that directly preceded the signing of the two treaties, see K. C. Chan, ‘The abrogation of British extraterritoriality in China 1942–43: a study of Anglo-American-Chinese relations’, Modern Asian Studies, vol. 11, no. 2, April 1977, pp. 257–91.

43 ‘U.S., Britain give up extra rights’ and ‘Ceremony in Chungking’, New York Times, 12 January 1943; Brooks Atkinson, ‘Government, unable to enforce ban of merrymaking, uses occasion to inspire people patriotically’, New York Times, 6 February 1943; ‘Chungking ratifies pact’, New York Times, 13 February 1943; Shen, L. and Feng, M. (eds), A Century of Resilient Tradition: Exhibition of the Republic of China's Diplomatic Archives, National Palace Museum, Taipei, 2011, pp. 156–61Google Scholar.

44 In addition to the United States of America and Great Britain, these countries included Brazil, Belgium, Luxembourg, Norway, Canada, Mexico, Sweden, the Netherlands, and France. See Fishel, The End of Extraterritoriality, pp. 213–15, 296–7 (notes 37–49); Shen and Feng, A Century of Resilient Tradition, pp. 156–77.

45 Chinese Year Book 1943, pp. 250, 255–6, 267–8; China Handbook 1943, pp. 147, 151–2, 159; Tyson Li, L., Madame Chiang Kai-shek: China's Eternal First Lady, Grove Press, New York, 2007, pp. 163, 182Google Scholar.

46 China Handbook 1944, p. 494; The Chinese Ministry of Information, China Handbook 1937–1945: A Comprehensive Survey of Major Developments in China in Eight Years of War (new edition with 1946 supplement), The MacMillan Company, New York, 1947, p. 158 Google Scholar; Council of International Affairs, Chungking, The Chinese Year Book, 1944–1945 (seventh issue), China Daily Tribune Publishing, Shanghai, 1946, pp. 488, 1021, 1024, 1028Google Scholar; Menon, Twilight in China, pp. 50, 169.

47 China Handbook 1943, p. 852. See also B. Zhang, ‘China's quest for military aid’, in Peatty et al., The Battle for China, pp. 286–7; MacKinnon, Wuhan, 1938, pp. 101–2. For an elucidating account of the complex Sino-German relations between July 1937 and July 1938, see Fox, J. P., Germany and the Far Eastern Crisis: A Study in Diplomacy and Ideology, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1982, pp. 229–331 Google Scholar.

48 Zhang, ‘China's quest for military aid’, pp. 288–91; Yu, M., The Dragon's War: Allied Operations and the Fate of China, 1937–1947, Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, 2006, pp. 4–5 Google Scholar, 15. Chuikov had studied Chinese and served as a young military adviser to the Nationalists in China during the Northern Expedition in 1926. He arrived in Chongqing on 31 December 1940. In February 1941, he succeeded Kachanov as chief military adviser—officially as ‘volunteer’ serving in the Chinese army—to Chiang Kai-shek, combining this office with that of Soviet military attaché. In February 1942, at his own request, Chuikov was recalled to the Soviet Union. See Chuikov, Mission to China, pp. xix, xxv, xxxvii, 24, 60–1, 162.

49 Academia Sinica, 11–POR–00228, p. 94; 11–POR–00230, pp. 5, 21, 30, 33, 36–7, 72–3, 108; 11–POR–00235, p. 169.

50 Academia Sinica, 11–POR–00228, p. 89; 11–POR–00230, pp. 4, 7, 19, 21, 35–6, 58, 69, 71; 11–POR–00234, p. 56; Yu, The Dragon's War, pp. 72–3.

51 Academia Sinica, 11–POR–00230, pp. 104–6; China Handbook 1943, pp. 146–7, 158; Chinese Year Book 1944–1945, pp. 1129–30; Stilwell, The Stilwell Papers, pp. 60–3; Yu, The Dragon's War, pp. 49–51.

52 ‘U.S. fliers in China down 4 Japanese’, New York Times, 21 December 1941.

53 Chinese Year Book 1943, p. 260; China Handbook 1943, p. 147; Chinese Year Book 1944–1945, pp. 1132–4; Yu, M., OSS in China: Prelude to Cold War, Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, 1996, p. 8 Google Scholar; Yu, The Dragon's War, pp. 40–1, 89–90.

54 Academia Sinica, 11–POR–00235, pp. 96, 166–8, 242, 250; China Handbook 1944, pp. 107–9; Chinese Year Book 1944–1945, pp. 523–6, 962; China Handbook 1945, pp. 174–6; Brooks Atkinson, ‘French envoys aid laughter in China’, New York Times, 28 May 1943.

55 China Handbook 1943, pp. 150, 158–9; ‘China gets 4 allied gunboats’, New York Times, 18 March 1942; Service, J. S., State Department Duty in China, the McCartney Era, and After, 1933–1977, an oral history conducted by Rosemary Levenson, Regional Oral History Office, The Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley, 1981, p. 178 Google Scholar.

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57 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China, Liste Diplomatique, October 1943, pp. 17, 29; Liste Diplomatique, January 1946, pp. 11–16; Chongqing Municipal Archives 0061*1*4, p. 71 (‘List of foreign military attachés and military missions in Chungking’, October 1944); Chinese Year Book 1944, p. 846; Chinese Year Book 1944–1945, pp. 1127–34.

58 Apart from the ‘Big Four’ powers (Britain, France, Soviet Union, the United States of America), only Canada, India, and Mexico had military attachés in China by late 1947; Diplomatic List, December 1947.

59 Yu, OSS in China, pp. 199, 209–10, 263–71.

60 Tyson Li, Madame Chiang Kai-shek, pp. 132–3, 160–1, 164–5; Taylor, J., The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the Struggle for Modern China, Harvard University Press, Cambridge and London, 2011, p. 156 Google Scholar.

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64 Dutch National Archives, NA 2.05.19/328 (letter dated 17 October 1939 from the Dutch legation secretary at Chongqing, J. van den Berg, to the Dutch chargé d'affaires at Beiping, Dr R. Flaes, p. 3); NA 2.05.90/462 (letter dated 3 December 1940 from the Dutch legation secretary at Chongqing, H. Bos, to the Dutch Minister of Foreign Affairs in London, pp. 1–2); NA 2.05.90/973 (undated instructions for the Dutch military attaché in Nanjing); Wakeman, F. Jr, Spymaster: Dai Li and the Chinese Secret Service, University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 2003, pp. 333–4, 520Google Scholar (note 26).

65 Chinese Year Book 1943, p. 679; China Handbook 1945, pp. 513–14; Peck, Two Kinds of Time, p. 379; Epstein, I., My China Eye: Memoirs of a Jew and a Journalist, Long River Press, San Francisco, 2005, pp. 160 Google Scholar, 207; Yu, OSS in China, p. 15; Yu, The Dragon's War, pp. 156–8.

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67 Miles, A Different Kind of War, pp. 2, 18, 29, 33, 111, 116; Yu, The Dragon's War, pp. 68–87.

68 Yu, OSS in China, pp. 10, 83–4; Yu, The Dragon's War, p. 118.

69 Yu, OSS in China, pp. 63, 83–4, 87, 268; Yu, The Dragon's War, pp. 8, 75.

70 Yu, OSS in China, p. 226; B. Furman, ‘U.S. “cloak and dagger” exploits and secret blows in China bared’, New York Times, 14 September 1945.

71 Yu, OSS in China, pp. 116–17; Yu, The Dragon's War, pp. 111–14; Miles, A Different Kind of War, pp. 175–201; Thaï, Ancestral Voices, pp. 34, 36, 73, 86–7.

72 Yu, OSS in China, pp. 157–71, 183–97, 226–9, 268–9; Barrett, D. D., Dixie Mission: The United States Army Observer Group in Yenan, 1944, Center for Chinese Studies, Chinese Research Monographs, No. 6, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1970, pp. 13, 23, 26, 76–80Google Scholar.

73 Yu, OSS in China, pp. 8, 20, 22–5, 27, 30, 53–5, 166; Liste Diplomatique, October 1943; Chongqing Municipal Archives, CMA 0061*1*4, pp. 71–2 (‘List of foreign military attachés and military missions in Chungking’, October 1944).

74 Yu, OSS in China, pp. 17–18, 20, 22, 44–6, 88–9, 91, 102, 149; Yu, The Dragon's War, pp. 52–9, 62–7.

75 Liste Diplomatique, October 1943; Liste Diplomatique, January 1946; China Handbook 1945, p. 165; Fairbank, Chinabound, pp. 202–3.

76 Y. Lin, ‘Boshui diandi jian jingshen’ [‘The lofty spirit of Boshui’], Wenzhou Ribao [Wenzhou Daily News], 26 November 2008; Shi, Y., ‘Helan hanxuejia gao luopei zai yu qijian jiaoyou kao’ [‘Study of Dutch sinologist Robert van Gulik's social contacts in Chongqing’], Journal of Shanghai Normal University (Philosophy & Social Sciences Edition), vol. 41, no. 3, May 2012, pp. 117–29Google Scholar.

77 ‘Victory House’ was the English name of the Peidu dasha (later renamed Shengli dasha), a former guesthouse in Chongqing where many foreign officers stayed during the war.

78 R. H. van Gulik, unpublished autobiography, China Years: March 1943–May 1946, p. 1. The relevant section of these memoirs, written in English, have been included in his Dutch biography (of which an English translation is currently in the process of being prepared); see Barkman, C. D. and de Vries-van der Hoeven, H., Een Man van Drie Levens: Biografie van Diplomaat, Schrijver, Geleerde Robert van Gulik [A Man of Three Lives: Biography of Diplomat, Writer and Scholar, Robert van Gulik], Forum, Amsterdam, 1995, pp. 113–14Google Scholar.

79 Yu, OSS in China, pp. 63, 87, 253; Barkman and de Vries-van der Hoeven, Een Man van Drie Levens, pp. 98–9, 110–12, 119, 133. To our knowledge, neither Fairbank nor van Gulik ever publicly admitted involvement in intelligence activities in Chongqing. Fairbank, in his memoirs, denied that any ‘secrets of intelligence or operations’ ever came his way; Fairbank, Chinabound, p. 215.

80 Z. Shen, Juntong neimu [The Inside Story of the Military Statistics Bureau], Wenshi ziliao chubanshe, Beijing, 1984, pp. 84–5; Wakeman, Spymaster, pp. 336, 521.

81 Chinese Year Book 1938–1939, p. 704; MacKinnon, S. R. and Friessen, O., China Reporting: An Oral History of American Journalism in the 1930s and 1940s, University of California Press, Berkeley, Los Angeles and London, 1987, pp. 36–8Google Scholar.

82 Chinese Year Book 1943, p. 677–9; China Handbook 1943, p. 705; China Handbook 1944, p. 423; China Handbook 1945, pp. 510–11; Sichuan Province Foreign Affairs Annals, 2005, p. 191; MacKinnon and Friessen, China Reporting, p. 48; Tong and Mih, Chiang Kai-shek's Teacher, p. 106.

83 China Handbook 1943, pp. 704–5; Peck, Two Kinds of Time, pp. 60–1.

84 China Handbook 1945, p. 694; Tong and Mih, Chiang Kai-shek's Teacher, pp. 110–17.

85 Ibid., pp. 90, 93–6, 139–40; Hahn, China to Me, pp. 117, 169, 176.

86 White, In Search of History, pp. 72–5, 78, 93, 106.

87 Hahn, China to Me, pp. 122–3, 148–52, 169; Tong and Mih, Chiang Kai-shek's Teacher, pp. 85, 109; Farmer, Shanghai Harvest, pp. 95, 120–1, 222–5; ‘Buzz Farmer writes of China's war’, The Daily News, Perth, Australia, 28 May 1945; MacKinnon and Friessen, China Reporting, p. 57; Epstein, My China Eye, pp. 299–319, 337–8.

88 Hahn, China to Me, pp. 121–2, 136; MacKinnon and Friessen, China Reporting, pp. xv–xxvii; French, P., Carl Crow: A Tough Old China Hand: The Life, Times, and Adventures of an American in Shanghai, Hong Kong University Press, Hong Kong, 2006, p. 238 Google Scholar.

89 For a contemporary introduction in the foreign press of China's wartime capital, see J. L. McCartney, ‘Citadel of old China’, New York Times, 16 January 1938. For an extensive contemporary account of the changes that came over Chongqing during the 1930s, see Spencer, J. E., ‘Changing Chungking: the rebuilding of an old Chinese city’, Geographical Review, vol. 29, no. 1, January 1939, pp. 46–60 CrossRefGoogle Scholar. An impressive series of rare photographs of wartime Chongqing by Carl Mydans can be found in ‘Chungking: free China's much-bombed capital fights on’, Life, 31 March 1941, pp. 93–101.

90 When the Chungking Hostel was demolished by Japanese bombs in 1940, Hahn moved into the Chialing House for a short while, before finally evacuating to the ‘safety zone’ on the South Bank. Hahn, China to Me, pp. 117, 182–4, 186–9; Yardley, Chinese Black Chamber, p. 176.

91 Hahn, China to Me, p. 134.

92 Epstein, My China Eye, pp. 131–4; MacKinnon and Friessen, China Reporting, pp. 40, 49–51, 79–82, 103–8; French, Carl Crow, pp. 242–3; Moreira, P., Hemingway on the China Front: His WWII Spy Mission with Martha Gellhorn, Potomac Books, Dulles, 2007, pp. 127–31Google Scholar.

93 Epstein, My China Eye, pp. 131–4; MacKinnon and Friessen, China Reporting, pp. 40, 49–51, 79–82, 103–8; French, Carl Crow, pp. 242–3; Moreira, Hemingway on the China Front, pp. 127–31.

94 Karaka, Chungking Diary, p. 26.

95 White, In Search of History, pp. 169–74; Tong and Mih, Chiang Kai-shek's Teacher, p. 113; Service, State Department Duty in China, p. 176; MacKinnon and Friessen, China Reporting, p. 17; H. R. Luce, ‘China to the mountains’, Life, 30 June 1941; ‘Luce back from China’, New York Times, 8 June 1941. In the years between 1927 and 1955, the ‘Gissimo’ appeared on the cover of Time ten times, incidentally together with the ‘Missimo’, as was the case in January 1937 when the couple featured as ‘Man & Wife of the Year’.

96 MacKinnon and Friessen, China Reporting, pp. 67–78.

97 Ibid., pp. 68–9.

98 Chinese Year Book 1944–1945, p. 812; China Handbook 1945, pp. 511, 609; ‘Press group in China’, New York Times, 19 May 1943; ‘Newsmen in Chungking elect’, New York Times, 17 November 1944; Tong and Mih, Chiang Kai-shek's Teacher, pp. 141–5.

99 Tong and Mih, Chiang Kai-shek's Teacher, p. 144; Epstein, My China Eye, pp. 171–3; Menon, Twilight in China, p. 67; White, In Search of History, pp. 239–81.

100 The Foreign Correspondents’ Club is presently located in Hong Kong at No. 2 Lower Albert Road, Central. The club's official website can be viewed online at http://fcchk.org [accessed 27 February 2017]. On the club's history and 70th anniversary, see also J. Manthorpe, ‘From Chongqing to Ice House Hill: Hong Kong's Foreign Correspondents’ Club marks 70 years as a journalists’ haven from Asia's wars’, The Vancouver Sun, 9 June 2013.