¹ The HKTC and Hsü Chi-yü, Ying-huan chih-lüeh (A brief survey of the oceans roundabout; 10 chüan, prefaces 1848, published 1850), are well-known geographical collections. Yao Ying K'ang-yu chi-hsing (Notes on the study of foreign geography; 16 chüan, started 1844, completed 1849?), is a shorter collection inspired by the first edition of the HKTC. Another collection was Liang T'ing-nan Hai-kuo ssu-shuo (Four treatises on maritime countries; 1846); see Hsien Yü-ch'ing Liang T'ing-nan chu-shu lu-yao (On the writings of Liang T'ing-nan), Ling-nan hsüeh-pao (Lingnan journal), 4.1, 119–54 (April 1935).Google Scholar

² Alexander, Wylie, Memorials of Protestant Missionaries to the Chinese (Shanghai, American Presbyterian Mission Press, 1867; repr. Taipei, Ch'eng-wen Publishing Company, 1967), provides biographies of early missionaries and an annotated record of their publications.Google ScholarChang, Hsi-t'ung, ‘The Earliest Phase of the Introduction of Western Political Science into China’, Yenching Journal of Social Studies, V. 1, 1–29 (07 1950), surveys early secular publications of the Protestant press in China and discusses their influence.Google Scholar

³ Latourette, Kenneth Scott, A History of Christian Missions in China (London, Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1929;Google Scholar repr. Taipei, , Ch'eng-wen Publishing Company, 1966), pp. 209–27.Google Scholar

⁴ My article, ‘Silent Evangelism: Presbyterians and the Mission Press in China, 1807–60’, Journal of Presbyterian History, 49.4, 287–302 (Winter 1971), examines the growth of the press.Google Scholar

⁵ Sheng, Ch'en Kuan (Kenneth Ch'en), ‘The Growth of Geographical Knowledge Concerning the West in China during the Ch'ing Dynasty’ (unpublished M.A. thesis, Yenching University, 05 1934), pp. 6–32, surveys early Jesuit works on geography.Google ScholarABCFM, ABC, 8.3, v. 1 and v. 2, on the missions library at Canton, indicated sources of missionary information on China and include references to works by and about Roman Catholic missionaries.Google ScholarS[amuel], Kidd, Catalogue of the Chinese Library of the Royal Asiatic Society (London, John W. Parker, 1838), pp. 34–35, shows that the books Robert Morrison brought to England from China in 1824 included works by Roman Catholic missionaries.Google ScholarMiller, Stuart Creighton, Unwelcome Immigrant: The American Image of the Chinese, 1785–1882 (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1969), p. 11, indicates that the writings of Roman Catholic missionaries were available and influential in the United States.Google Scholar

⁶ Jackson, Anthony Haig, ‘The Gospel and the Heathen, 1795–1813: A Study of the Origins and Early Years of the London Missionary Society’ (unpublished honors thesis, Harvard College, 03 1967), pp. 43, 79;Google Scholar and Anderson, Rufus, et al., Memorial Volume of the First Fifty Years of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, 4th ed. (Boston, The Board, 1861), pp. 113, 387, point to the link between the growth of geographical-historical knowledge and Protestant expansion.Google Scholar

⁷ Williams, S. Wells, The Middle Kingdom, 2 vols., rev. ed. (New York, Charles Scribners Sons, 1883; repr. Taipei, Ch'eng-wen Publishing Company, 1965), II, 63–64 and 340–41;Google Scholarand a letter from Morrison, Robert cited in the Boston Recorder, IV. 43, 173 (23 10 1819), exemplify expressions of this missionary approach.Google Scholar

⁸ Wylie shows that the following Protestant missionaries wrote works treating geography and history during the early nineteenth century: Robert Morrison, William Milne, Walter Henry Medhurst, Samuel Kidd, Charles Gutzlaff, Elijah Coleman Bridgman, Issachar Jacox Roberts, Dyer Ball, Divie Bethune McCartee, and Richard Quarterman Way.

⁹ Wylie, , pp. 5, 19–28, introduces Morrison' Hsi-yu ti-ch'iu wen-chien lüeh-chuan (1819); Milne's magazine; and Medhurst's ealry works, including Ti-li pien-t'ung lüeh-chuan (Geographical catechism; 1819), T'e-hsüan tso-yao mei-yüeh chi-chuan (A monthly record of important selections; 1823–1826), and Chiao-liu-pa tsung-lun (A general discussion of Java; 1824). For Milne' monthly magazine, see Ts'ai Wu , T'ant'an ‘Ch'a shih-su mei-yüeh t'ung-chi-chuan’: Hsien-tai Chung-wen ch'-ik'an ti-i-chunt' : (Milne's Chinese monthly magazine: the first modern Chinese periodical), Kuo-li chung-yang t'u-shu-kuan kuan-k'an (National Central Library Bulletin), new series 1.4, 27–40 (April 1968).Google Scholar

¹⁰ The possibility of shifting interests among missionaries and their sponsors toward more secular activity is difficult to document; however, for suggestions of the growth of secular missions in the work of the ABCFM, see Anderson, , pp. 243–44, 304, and 375.Google Scholar

¹¹ Ying-chi-li-kuo jen-p'in kuo-shih l¨eh-shuo (A brief account of English character and national affairs), available in Kuo, T'ing-i, Chin-tai Chung-kuo shih (History of modern China; 2 vols., Changsha, Commercial Press, 1940–1941), I, 619–622, was a short introduction to England written by Charles Marjoribanks, of the British East India Company, translated by Robert Morrison, and distributed by Charles Gutzlaff on the 1832 voyage of the Lord Amherst. The aim of this work was political, to encourage changes that would allow Westerners more access to the ch'ing empire.Google ScholarLindsay, Hugh Hamilton and Gutzlaff, Chales, Report of Proceedings on a Voyage to the Northern Ports of China, in the Ship Lord Amherst 2nd, ed. (London, B. Fellowes, 1834), pp. 21, 32–33, 35, 53, 62, 93, 103, 105, 157, 157, and 160, discusses this work, which marked the beginning of the politically oriented writings of the missionary-merchant community in the 1830s.Google Scholar

¹² Wylie, , pp. 54–66, gives a brief biography of Gutzlaff and surveys his writings.Google ScholarSchyter, Herman, Karl Gützlaff als Missionar in China (Copenhagen, Ejnar Munksgaard, 1946), provides a complete biography, with an English summary.Google Scholar

¹³ For biographical information on Bridgman, see Wylie, , pp. 68–72;Google Scholar and Gillett Bridgman, Eliza J., ed., The Poineer of American Missions in China: The Life and Labors of Elijah Coleman Bridgman (New York, Anson D. F. Randolph, 1864).Google Scholar

¹⁴ Gutzlaff, Charles, Journal of Three Voyages along the Coast of China in 1831, 1832, and 1833 (London, Frederick Westley and A. H. Davis, 1834; repr. Taipei, Ch'engwen Publishing Company, 1968), provides a chronicle of Gutzlaff's early journeys.Google Scholar

¹⁵ Greenberg, Michael, British Trade and the Opening of China, 1800–42 (Cambridge, England, Cambridge University Press, 1951), pp. 139–40, n. 4, shows that William Jardine agreed to guarantee Gutzlaff's monthly magazine in return for Gutzlaff's services as interpreter and physician aboard the Sylph.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Chinnery, George, the British artist who resided in Macao, made a drawing of Gutzlaff ‘in the dress of a Fokien sailor’ that became a colored lithograph (London, Colnagh and Company, 1835).Google Scholar

¹⁷ Gutzlaff, , Journal, pp. 71, 131.Google Scholar

¹⁸ Both the Harvard-Yenching Library, Harvard University, and the Wason Collection, of the Cornell University Library, have extensive holdings of the THYK. For a recent study of the magazine, see Ts'ai Wu, , ‘T'an-t'an 'Tung-Hsi-yang k'ao mei-yüeh t'ung-chi-chuan’: Chung-kuo ching-nei ti-i-chung hsien-tai Chung-wen ch'i-k'an : (Gutzlaff's Chinese magazine: the first modern Chinese periodical published in China), Kuo-li chung-yang t'u-shu-kuan kuan-k'an, new series 2.4, 23–46, (April 1969).Google Scholar

¹⁹ Gutzlaff's prospectus for the Chinese Magazine appears in CR, II. 4, 187 (August 1833).

²⁰ THYK, 1835, bound no. 6, p. 9b (also 1837.3, 9b).Google Scholar

²¹ THYK, 1835, bound no. 6, pp. 10b–11b (also 1837.3, 10b–11b).Google Scholar

²² THYK, 1835, bound no. 6, p. 14; 1838.8, 8b–11.Google Scholar

²³ See the reports of the SDUK/C in CR, III. 8, 378–84 (December 1834), IV. 8, 354–61 (December 1835), V. II, 507–13 (March 1837), VI. 7, 334–6 (November 1837), and VII. 8, 403 (December 1838).

²⁴ THYK, 1838.3, 42–44b, 51b; 1838.4, 63–65b, 5, 81–83.

²⁵ Wei Yüan made this work one of the most frequently cited sources of the HKTC, beginning with the 1847 revision. Hsü Chi-yü's references (2, 31b and 3, 55) to Wan-kuo ti-li shu , by ‘a Westerner’ (T'ai-Hsi-jen ) seem to point to Gutzlaff's Universal geography. Hsü may have obtained this work in 1844 from David Abeel, an ABCFM missionary, who presented Hsü with several maps and some books in Chinese by Westerners (see Hsü's preface).

²⁶ Wylie, , p. 61.Google Scholar

²⁷ Kao-li-wen (Bridgman, E. C.), Mei-li-ko Ho-sheng-kuo chih-lüeh Chüan shou plus 27 chüan, Singapore, Chien-Hsia shu-yüan 1838);Google Scholar repr. as Ya-mo-li-ko Ho-chung-kuo chih-lüeh (Hong Kong, 1844); rev. ed.,Google Scholarpi-chin-wen, (Bridgman), Ta-Mei lien-pang chih-lüeh (Shanghai, Mo-hai shukuan 1861). THYK, 1837.7, 87–88b and 1838.1, 17–18b, are about the American nation and may be early drafts, edited by Gutzlaff, of parts of Bridgman's U.S.A.Google Scholar

²⁸ Kao-li-wen, , Mei-li-ko, 24, 61b–62 (also in HKTC [1852], 59. 44–44b).Google Scholar

²⁹ CR, IV.8, 355–6 (December 1835) and V.11, 512 (March 1837).

³⁰ Ying, Yao, 12, 2b–6, presents a wide range of geographical terms in use in the 1840s.Google Scholar

³¹ Hsin-pao, Chang, Commissioner Lin and the Opium War (Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1964), carefully examines Lin's involvement in the opium crisis. For a biography of Lin, see the recent study by his descendant, Lin Ch'ungyung , Lin Tse-hsü chuan (A biography of Lin Tse-hsü, Taipei, Chung-hui ta-tien pien-yin-hui , 1967).Google Scholar

³² Peter Parker to Rufus Anderson, from Canton, 4 July 1839, ABCFM, ABC, 16.3.8, V. Ia, identifies the four translators as ‘Aman, Shaou Tih, Alum, Atih.’

³³ Hunter, William C., Bits of old China (London, Kegan Paul, Trench and Co., 1885; repr. Taipei, Ch'eng-wen Publishing Company, 1966), pp. 260–3.Google Scholar

³⁴ For a useful biography of Leang A-fa, see McNeur, George Hunter, China's First Preacher: Liang A-fa (Shanghai, Kwang Hsueh Publishing House, [1934]). I have spelled Leang's surname as it appears in contemporary writings by missionaries.Google Scholar

³⁵ There are references to Leang A-teh in miscellaneous notes on missionary activity in 1839 (ABCFM, ABC, 16.3. 11, V. 1, pp. 72, 74); in Bridgman's semiannual reports for 7 september 1839 and 1 January 1840 (ABCFM, ABC, 16.3.8, v. 1a); and in CR, X.10, 576–7 (October 1841).

³⁶ CR, VII.2, 71–7 (June 1839) and 5, 270 (September 1839), chronicle Bridgman's meetings with Lin on 17 June and 10 September 1839. CR, VIII. 12, 634–7 (April 1840), provides a record of Parker' meetings with Lin' deputies.

³⁷ In the HKTC, Wei Yüan identified excerpts from the Ssu-chou chih by describing them as ‘written originally by a European, translated by Tse-hsü, Lin. Ssu-chou chih appears also in Hsiao-fang-hu-chai yü-ti ts'ung-ch'ao (Collected copies of works on geography, from the Haiao-fang-hu study), comp. Wang Hsi-ch'i (Shanghai, 1877, 1894, 1897), Chih , 12.Google Scholar

³⁸ Chia-chien, Wang, Wei Yüan nien-p'u (A chronological biography of Wei Yüan; Teipei, Institute of Modern History, Academia Sinica, 1967), pp. 76, 82.Google ScholarFor a valuable recent study of the HKTC, see Leonard, Jane Kate, ‘Wei Yüan and the Hai-kuo t'u-chih: A Geopolitical Analysis of Western Expansion in Maritime Asia’ (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Cornell University, 06 1971).Google Scholar

³⁹ Ch'en, Kenneth, ‘Matteo Ricci's Contribution to, and Influence on, Geographical Knowledge in China’, Journal of the American Oriental Society, LIX.3, 325–59 (09 1939), considers the effects of Jesuit geographical writings.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ Well-known Jesuit writings included Ricci's world-map (K'un-yü wan-kuo ch'üan-t'u ; 1584–1608); Ai-ju-lüeh (Guilio Aleni), et al., chih-fang wai-chi (Further notes on foreign geography; 5 chüan, 1623); and Nanhuai-jen (Ferdinand Verbiest), K'un-yü t'u-shuo (Illustrated world geography; 2 chüan, 1672). The section on foreign geography (wai-kuo chuan in the Ming-shih (History of the Ming dynasty; completed 1739); Chang Hsieh Tung-Hsi-yang k'ao (A study of the Eastern and Western ocean [routes] 12 chüan, author's preface 1617); Ch'en Lun-chiung Hai-kuo wen-chien lu (A record of things seen and heard among the maritime countries; author's preface 1730); and Yin Kuang-jen and Chang Ju-lin Ao-men chi-lüeh (A brief record of Macao; completed 1751), also were standard references on foreign geography in the early nineteenth century.Google Scholar

⁴¹ One indication of renewed interest is Wang Ta-hai , Hai-tao i-chih (Treatise on the islands of the sea; 6 chüan, 1791), which describes the Western presence in the Eastern seas.

⁴² Wilson, Suzanne, ‘The Hai lu: A Chinese View of the Maritime World in the Early Nineteenth Century’ (unpublished seminar paper, Harvard University, May, 1967), pp. 6–7.Google Scholar

⁴³ See Waley, See Arthur, The Opium War through Chinese Eyes (London, George Allen and Unwin, 1958), pp. 66–7.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Ch'en Feng-heng Ying-chi-li chi-lüeh (A brief account of England; 1 chüan, completed 1841), is one Opium War work on England.

⁴⁵ For a brief general discussion of statecraft scholarship, see Fairbank, JohnK., Reischauer, Edwin O., and Craig, Albert M., East Asia: The Modern Transformation (Vol. II of A History of East Asian Civilization; Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1965), pp. 123–7.Google Scholar

⁴⁶ For introductions to this work and its contents, see Wakeman, Frederic, ‘The Huang-ch'ao ching-shih wen-pien’, Ch'ing-shih wen-t'i, I. 10, 8–22 (02 1969),Google Scholar and Peter M. Mitchell, ‘A Further Note on the HCCSWP’, ibid, II. 3, 40–46 (July 1970).

⁴⁷ Chia-chien, Wang, p. 47; Chang Hsin-pao, p. 122.Google Scholar

⁴⁸ For details on these works, see my bibliographic survey, ‘Wei Yüan and Westerners: Notes on the Sources of the Hai-kuo t'u-chih’, Ch'ing-shih wen-t'i, II. 4, 1–20 (11 1970).

⁴⁹ One troubled official was Liang Chang-chü , whose essay on ‘T'ien-chuchiao’ (Christianity), in Lang-chi ts'ung-t'an (Collected essays by Liang Chang-chü; 1847), 5, 8–9, clearly indicates his apprehensive view of Westerners and their religion.

⁵⁰ Cohen, Paul, China and Christianity: The Missionary Movement and the Growth of Chinese Antiforeignism, 1860–1870 (Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1963), brilliantly pursues this theme.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁵¹ Gully, Robert and Denham, Capt., Journals Kept by Mr. Gully and Capt. Denham during a Captivity in China in the year 1842 (London, Chapman and Hall, 1844), pp. 46, 134–5.Google Scholar

⁵² For snatches of this work, unavailable today in its complete form, see Hsien Yü-ch'ing, 144–5.

⁵³ For a translation of Hsü's passage on Washington, see Ssu-yü, Teng and Fairbank, John K., China's Response to the West (Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1954), pp. 44–45.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ Fairbank, , Reischauer, , and Craig, , p. 364, point out the influence of this well known publication on the reform movement in China during the late Ch'ing.Google Scholar