Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-m6dg7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-08T10:13:31.797Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

The Political Strategy of Aurobindo Ghosh: The Utilization of Hindu Religious Symbolism and the Problem of Political Mobilization in Bengal

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 November 2008

Barbara Southard
Affiliation:
University of Puerto Rico

Extract

The nationalist rhetoric of Aurobindo Ghosh and other leaders of the political movement protesting the decision of the Government of British India to partition Bengal province in 1905 contained frequent allusions to Hindu myths and symbols. Militant political leaders primarily drew upon Śakta symbolism, especially the imagery of the Hindu cult of Kālī worship, and they adopted philosophical justifications of nationalism which were based on modernist, Neo-Hindu interpretation of Śaṁkara's Vedānta philosophy. The nation was described as an incarnation of the goddess Kālī, and nationalists were considered her devotees.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1980

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Haridas, and Mukherjee, Uma, India's Fight for Freedom: or the Swadeshi Movement, 1905–1906 (Calcutta: Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay, 1958), p. 208.Google Scholar

2 Smith, Donald Eugene, Religion and Political Development (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1970), p. 124.Google Scholar

3 Census of India, 1901, as quoted by Broomfield, J. H., Elite Conflict in a Plural Society: Twentieth Century Bengal (Bombay: Oxford University Press, 1968), pp. 910.Google Scholar

4 Broomfield, , Elite Conflict, pp. 8, 518.Google Scholar

5 Census of India, 1901, as quoted in ibid., pp. 9–10.

6 Seal, Anil, The Emergence of Indian Nationalism: Competition and Collaboration in the Late Nineteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968), p. 57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

7 General Report on Public Instruction in Bengal for 1883–1884, as quoted by Seal, ibid., pp. 62–3.

8 Gunderson, Warren, ‘Study VI: Modernization and Cultural Change,’ in Dimock, Edward (ed.), Bengal Literature and History (East Lansing, Michigan: Asian Studies Center, 1967).Google Scholar

9 Sarkar, Jagadish Narayan, ‘Islam in Bengal,’ In Sinha, N. K. (ed.), The History of Bengal, 1757–1905 (Calcutta: University of Calcutta, 1967), pp. 574–5.Google Scholar

10 Broomfield, , Elite Conflict, p. 5.Google Scholar

11 Bhattacharya, Jogendra Nath, Hindu Castes and Sects (Calcutta: Thacker, Spink and Co., 1896), pp. 198200.Google Scholar

12 Risley, H. H., The Tribes and Castes of Bengal (Calcutta: 1892), Vol. I, p. 442.Google Scholar

13 Zimmer, Heinrich, Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1946, 1962), pp. 190–3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

14 Ibid., p. 215.

15 Chatterjee, Satiscandra and Datta, Dhirendramohan, An Introduction to Indian Philosophy (Calcutta: University of Calcutta, 1960), pp. 369–75.Google Scholar

16 For remarks on the Calcutta Municipal Bill, see Sanjivani, June 29, 1899, Report on the Native Papers of Bengal (hereafter referred to as RNPB) (1899), p. 480.Google Scholar For remarks on the Universities Act of 1904 see, Bengalee, February 25, 1904, Report on Native owned English Newspapers in Bengal (hereafter referred to as RNEPB) (1904), p. 109. Hitavarta, November 6, 1904, RNPB (1904), p. 1016. Barisal Hitaishi, April 9, 1904, RNPB (1904), pp. 297–8.

17 Tripathi, Amales, The Extremist Challenge (Calcutta: Orient Longmans, 1967), pp. 144–5;Google ScholarDacca Gazette, October 2, 1905, RNPB (1905), p. 994.Google Scholar

18 McLane, J. R., ‘The Decision to Partition Bengal in 1905,’ Indian Economic and Social History Review, Vol. II, No. 3 (07, 1965), pp. 221–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

19 Bengalee, July 23, 1905, RNEPB (1905), p. 270.Google Scholar

20 Haridas, and Mukherjee, Uma, India's Fight for Freedom, pp. 45–6.Google Scholar

21 Gazette, Dacca, July 10, 1905, RNPB (1905), p. 674.Google Scholar

22 Bengalee, January 14, 1906, RNEPB (1906), p. 23.Google Scholar

23 Haridas, and Mukherjee, Uma, India's Fight for Freedom: or the Swadeshi Movement, 1905–1906, p. 45.Google Scholar

24 Barisal Hitaishi, September 6, 1905, RNPB (1905), p. 892.Google Scholar

25 Rowlatt Sedition Report (Calcutta, 1918), p. 71.Google Scholar

26 Haridas, and Mukherjee, Uma, The Origins of the National Education Movement (Calcutta: Calcutta University, 1957), pp. 150–1.Google Scholar

27 Sanjivani, April 19, 1906, RNPB (1906), pp. 355–7.Google Scholar

28 Sandhya, April 19, 1906, RNPB (1906), pp. 355–7;Google ScholarJugantar, April 22, 1906, RNPB (1906), p. 398.

29 Ghosh, Aurobindo, ‘The Gospel according to Surendranath,’ Bande Mataram, April 22, 1907.Google Scholar

30 The term ‘Extemist’ may be understood to refer to the faction in the Indian National Congress that espoused militant views, while ‘militant’ is used in this article as a generic term for all those who advocated overthrow of British rule and tactics of confrontation with the administration.

31 Sandhya, September 1, 1906, RNPB (1906), p. 822;Google ScholarHindoo Patriot, September 10, 1906, RNPB (1906), p. 408.Google Scholar

32 Charu Mihir, September 11, 1906, RNPB (1906), p. 862.Google Scholar

33 Singh, P., ‘The Indian National Congress-Surat Split,’ Bengal Past and Present, Vol. LXXXIV, Pt 2, No. 158 (0712, 1965), pp. 121–39.Google Scholar

34 Ghosh, Aurobindo, Sri Aurobindo on Himself and the Mother (Pondicherry: Sri Aurobindo Ashram, 1955), pp. 43–4.Google Scholar

35 Rowlatt Sedition Report, Annexure I.

36 Sarkar, Sumit, ‘Trends in Bengal's Swadeshi Movement, Part 1,’ Bengal Past and Present, Vol. LXXXIV, Pt 1, No. 157 (0106, 1965), pp. 1039.Google Scholar

37 Sanjivani, January 14, 1909, RNPB (1909), p. 102;Google ScholarHindoo Patriot, December 14, 1908 RNEPB (1908), p. 402.Google Scholar

38 Broomfield, , Elite Conflict, pp. 3541.Google Scholar

39 Purani, A. B., The Life of Sri Aurobindo: A Source Book (Pondicherry: Sri Aurobindo Ashram, 1964).Google Scholar

40 Indu Prakash, February 5, 1894.Google Scholar

42 Indu Prakash, August 7, 1893.Google Scholar

43 Purani, , Life of Aurobindo, p. 56.Google Scholar

44 Ibid., pp. 52–62.

45 Ghosh, Aurobindo, Bankim-Tilak-Dayananda (Pondicherry: Sri Aurobindo Ashram, 1955), p. 19.Google Scholar

46 Ghosh, Aurobindo, Sri Aurobindo on Himself and the Mother, p. 49.Google ScholarBande Mataram April 15, 1907.

47 Purani, , Life of Aurobindo, pp. 101–2.Google Scholar

48 Ibid., p. 105.

49 Tripathi, Amales, The Extremist Challenge, pp. 131–2.Google Scholar

50 Purani, , Life of Aurobindo, pp. 133–40.Google Scholar

51 Bande Mataram, April 13, 1907.Google Scholar

52 Mukopadhyay, Jadugopal, Biplabi Jibaner Smrti (Memories of Revolutionary Life) (Calcutta: Indian Associated Publishing Co.), p. 96.Google Scholar

53 Gordon, Leonard A., Bengal: The Nationalist Movement, 1876–1940 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1974), pp. 110, 112–13.Google Scholar

54 Chatterjee, Bankim Chandra, Anandamath, trans. from Bengali by Aurobindo, and Ghosh, Barindra (Calcutta: Basumati Sahitya Mandir, n.d.).Google Scholar

55 Vivekananda, Swami, ‘Practical Vedanta, Part I’, Complete Works, Vol. II, pp. 291–306.Google Scholar

56 Gambhirananda, Swami, History of the Ramakrishna Math and Mission (Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama, 1957).Google Scholar

57 Bande Mataram, April 23, 1907.Google Scholar

58 Purani, , Life of Aurobindo, pp. 77–82.Google ScholarRowlatt Sedition Report, p. 67.

59 Bande Mataram, March 28, April 7, 1908.Google Scholar

60 Purani, , Life of Aurobindo, p. 80.Google Scholar

61 Ibid., p. 90.

62 With reference to the relation between Aurobindo's political views and his inner conflict over cultural identity, Dr Leonard Gordon remarks: ‘From his first political articles and certainly from the later years at Baroda, it is clear that Aurobindo wanted to purge the foreign elements from within himself and from his country. He saw his individual conflicts writ large in English-Indian relations.’ Gordon, , Bengal: The Nationalist Movement, p. 114.Google Scholar

63 Ibid., p. 128.

64 Bande Mataram, March 25, 1908.Google Scholar

65 Bande Mataram, March 2, 1908.Google Scholar

66 Bande Mataram, May 25, 1907.Google Scholar

67 Bande Mataram, March 19, 1908.Google Scholar

68 Bande Mataram, March 6, 1908.Google Scholar

69 Bande Mataram, April 23, 1907.Google Scholar

70 See Pal, Bipin, Memories of My Life and Times, Vol. II (Calcutta: Yugayatri Prakashak, 1951).Google Scholar

71 See, for example, Pal, Bipin, The Soul of India (Calcutta: Choudhury and Choudhury, 1911),Google Scholar and Pal, Bipin, Europe Asks: Who is Sri Krishna? (Calcutta: The New India Printing and Publishing Co., 1939).Google Scholar

72 New India, June 6, 1907,Google Scholar as cited in Ker, James Cambell, Political Trouble in India, 1907–1917 (confidential report) (Calcutta: Superintendent Government Printing, 1917), pp. 46–7.Google Scholar

74 Pal, Bipin, ‘The New Movement’, Swadeshi and Swaraj (Calcutta: Yugayatri Prakashak, 1954), pp. 117–48.Google Scholar

75 Ghosh, Aurobindo, ‘A Great Message’, Bande Mataram, 03 12, 1908.Google Scholar

76 Ghosh, Aurobindo, Sri Aurobindo on Himself and the Mother, pp. 51–2.Google Scholar

77 Ker, , Political Trouble in India, pp. 1113.Google Scholar

78 Gordon, , Bengal: The Nationalist Movement, p. 123.Google Scholar

79 Rowlatt Sedition Report, pp. 1415.Google Scholar

80 Jugantar, July 22, 1907, RNPB (1907), pp. 724–5.Google Scholar

81 Jugantar, June 16, 1907,Google Scholar as translated in Ghosh, Kali Charan, The Roll of Honour: Anecdotes of Indian Martyrs (Calcutta: Vidya Bharati, 1965), p. 138.Google Scholar

82 Jugantar, August 12, 1907, in ibid., pp. 110–11.

83 Jugantar, March 26, 1907, in ibid., p. 104.

84 Jugantar, June 23, 1907, in ibid., p. 108.

85 Rowlatt Sedition Report, Annexure I, p. ix.

86 Jugantar, November 2, 1907, in Ghosh, Kali Charan, Roll of Honour, pp. 101–2.Google Scholar

87 Majumdar, B. B., Militant Nationalism in India (Calcutta: General Printers and Publishers, 1966), p. 200.Google Scholar

88 Rowlatt Sedition Report, pp. 6871.Google Scholar

89 Ibid., p. 71; Ker, , Political Trouble in India, pp. 156–7.Google Scholar

90 Rowlatt Sedition Report, p. 190.Google Scholar

91 Chatterji, Jogesh, In Search of Freedom (Calcutta: K. L. Mukhopadhyay, 1967), p. 25.Google Scholar

93 Ibid., p. 27.

94 Bengalee, January 14, 1906, RNEPB (1906), p. 23.Google Scholar

95 Haridas, and Mukherjee, Uma, India's Fight for Freedom, p. 38.Google Scholar

96 Navayug, November 18, 1905, RNPB (1905), p. 117.Google Scholar

97 Daily Hitavadi, November 6, 1905, RNPB (1905), pp. 1056–7.Google Scholar

98 Rowlatt Sedition Report, p. 71.Google Scholar See also quote from the ‘Administration Report of the Government of East Bengal and Assam,’ in Sanjivani, April 23, 1909, RNPB (1909), p. 492.

99 Rowlatt Sedition Report, Annexure 2, p. x.Google Scholar

100 Amrita Bazar Patrika, October 13, 1904, RNEPB (1904), p. 483.Google Scholar

101 Dacca Gazette, January 18, 1904, RNPB (1904), p. 108.Google Scholar

102 Dacca Gazette, January 18, 1904, RNPB (1904), p. 109.Google Scholar

103 Sanjivani, August 24, 1905, RNPB (1905), p. 850.Google Scholar

104 Sandhya, April 25, 1905, RNPB (1905), p. 432.Google Scholar

105 New India, August 26, 1906.Google Scholar

106 Amrita Bazar Patrika, July 11, 1907.Google Scholar

107 Bengalee, August 3, 1907, RNEPB (1907), p. 334;Google ScholarAmrita Bazar Patrika, June 30, 1906, RNEPB (1906), p. 48.Google Scholar

108 Sanjivani, October 5, 1905, as cited in Haridas and Uma Mukherjee, India's Fight for Freedom, p. 235.Google Scholar

109 Sandhya, October 20, 1905, RNPB (1905), p. 1019.Google Scholar

110 Hitavarta, December 24, 1905, RNPB (1905), p. 12.Google Scholar

111 Mihir o Sudhakar, June 14, 1907, RNPB (1907), pp. 566–8.Google Scholar

112 Indian Empire, December 5, 1906, RNEPB (1906), p. 520.Google Scholar

113 Rowlatt Sedition Report, Annexure 2, p. x.Google Scholar

114 Ibid., pp. 15, 71; Chatterji, Jogesh, In Search of Freedom, p. 25.Google Scholar

115 Sandhya, August 5, 1908, RNPB (1908), p. 1485.Google Scholar

116 Hitavadi, September 24, 1905, RNPB (1905), p. 963.Google Scholar

117 Hitavata, September 9, 1906, RNPB (1906), p. 832.Google Scholar

118 Bengalee, October 14, 1905, RNEPB (1905), p. 373.Google Scholar

119 Daily Hitavadi, January 9, 1906, RNPB (1906), p. 29.Google Scholar

120 Bhattacharya, Jogendranath, Hindu Castes and Sects, pp. 198–9.Google Scholar

121 Sarkar, Sumit, ‘Trends in Bengal's Swadeshi Movement, 1903–1908,’ Bengal Past and Present, Vol. LXXXIV, Part II, No. 158 (0712 1965), p. 151.Google Scholar

122 Mihir o Sudhakar, June 22, 1900. RNPB (1900), p. 494.Google Scholar

123 Indian Mirror, May 17, 1901, RNEPB (1901), p. 336.Google ScholarMihir o Sudhakar, June 14, 1907, RNPB (1907), p. 566–8.

124 Mihir o Sudhakar, July 14, 1905, RNPB (1905), p. 697.Google ScholarMoslem Chronicle, August 5, 1905, RNPB (1905), p. 294.

125 Mihir o Sudhakar, August 11, 1905, RNPB (1905), p. 801.Google Scholar

126 Mihir o Sudhakar, May 31, 1907, RNPB (1907), p. 512.Google Scholar

127 Mihir o Sudhakar, January 19, 1906, RNPB (1906), p. 82.Google Scholar

128 Indian Empire, December 5, 1906, RNEPB (1906), p. 520.Google Scholar

129 Sanjivani, December 20, 1906, RNPB (1906), p. 1154.Google Scholar

130 Charu Mihir (Mymensingh), June 12, 1906, RNPB (1906), p. 539.Google Scholar

131 Mihir o Sudhakar, March 15, 1907, RNPB (1907), p. 248.Google Scholar

132 Soltan, April 19, 1907, RNPB (1907), pp. 336–7.Google ScholarDaily Hitavadi, April 30, 1907, RNPB (1907), p. 365.Google ScholarMihir o Sudhakar, May 3, 1907, RNPB (1907), p. 389.Google Scholar

133 Bande Mataram, March 12, 1907, RNEPB (1907), p. 78.Google Scholar

134 Rowlatt Sedition Report, Annexure 2, p. x.Google Scholar

135 Jasohar, April 19, 1908, RNPB (1908), p. 750.Google Scholar For a similar demand by a low caste, see Sanjivani, April 9, 1908, RNPB (1908), p. 751.Google Scholar

136 Tripura Hitaishi, February 19, 1901, RNPB (1901), p. 153.Google Scholar

137 Kasipur Nivasi, April 5, 1905, RNPB (1905), p. 362.Google Scholar

138 Mihir o Sudhakar, June 5, 1908, RNPB (1908), p. 1114.Google Scholar

139 Khulnavasi, June 20, 1908, RNPB (1908), p. 1209.Google Scholar