¹ Nineteenth-century writers used numerous transliterations of Wahhabi, including Wahabi, Wahabee, and Wahhaby. Here I have used the transliteration Wahhabi, unless quoting directly from a source. With all other transliterated words, I have used phonetic spellings and omitted the use of diacritical accents. All translations of Urdu texts, unless noted, are my own.

² The most important scholarly work on the Wahhabi movement in India is that of Ahmad, Q. (1966). The Wahabi Movement in India, Firma K. L. Mukhopadhyay, CalcuttaGoogle Scholar. See also Balkhi, F. (1983). Wahabi Movement, Classical Publishing, New DelhiGoogle Scholar; and Husain, M. (1960 and 1961). ‘The Successors of Sayyid Ahmad Shahid: Jihad on the North-West Frontier’ and ‘Trials and Persecution’, in A History of the Freedom Movement, Vol. II (1831–1905), Pakistan Historical Society, Karachi, Part 1: pp. 145–169Google Scholar; Part 2: pp. 366–389. Peter Robb has used documents from one of the trials to reconstruct the history of popular anti-colonial religious movements in Robb, P. (1993). ‘The Impact of British Rule on Religious Community: Reflections on the Trial of Maulvi Ahmadullah of Patna in 1865’, in Robb, P. (ed.) Society and Ideology: Essays in South Asian History Presented to Professor K.A. Ballhatchet, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, pp. 142–176.Google Scholar For a more general overview of scholarly and popular literature on jihadi movements in the northwest frontier, see Hopkins, B.D. (2009). ‘Jihad on the Frontier: A History of Religious Revolt on the North-West Frontier, 1800–1947’, History Compass, 7:6, pp. 1459–1469CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³ The Great Wahabi Case. A Full and Complete Report of the Proceedings and Debates in the Matters of Ameer Khan and Hashmadad Khan, R. Cambray & Co., Calcutta, 1899.

⁴ For a more general discussion of this ideological contest, see Metcalf, T.R. (1995). Ideologies of the Raj, Cambridge University Press, CambridgeCrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Robb, P. (2007). Liberalism, Modernity, and the Nation: Empire, Identity, and India, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, especially Chapters 1–3Google Scholar.

⁵ For a detailed discussion of Sayyid Ahmad's jihad in theory and practice, see Jalal, A. (2008). Partisans of Allah: Jihad in South Asia, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, pp. 58–113; 307.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁶ On the migrations and trans-regional networks of Indian ulama, see Alavi, S. (2011). ‘“Fugitive Mullahs and Outlawed Fanatics”: Indian Muslims in Nineteenth Century Trans-Asiatic Imperial Rivalries’, Modern Asian Studies, 45:6, pp. 1337–1382CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷ Jalal, Partisans of Allah, pp. 64–65.

⁸ Muhammad Siddik Hasan Khan made this claim in the late nineteenth century. Khan, M.S.H. (1884). An Interpreter of Wahabiism, trans. and ed. Akbar ‘Alam, Sayyad, Thomas, J.W., Baptist Mission Press, Calcutta, p. 76.Google Scholar On Fazl-i-Rasul, see the entry in the Persian biographical dictionary of Indian ulama: Ali, R. (1894). Tazkirah-i-Ulama-i-Hind, Naval Kishore Press, Lucknow, pp. 163–164Google Scholar. While academic research in English on Fazl-i-Rasul remains very limited, his role in anti-Wahhabi activities is a topic of considerable debate among religious scholars writing in Urdu, debates that often occur on the web. Chisti-Sabri, A. (2008). ‘Fazle Rasul Badayuni and Deobandi Methodology’, Islamieducation, <http://www.islamieducation.com/en/refutation/fazle-rasul-badayuni-and-deobandi-methodology.html>, [accessed 21 October 2012].

⁹ Khan, S.A. (1872). Review on Dr. Hunter's Indian Musalmans: Are They Bound in Conscience to Rebel Against the Queen, Medical Hall Press, Benares, pp. 10–12.Google Scholar Followers of Sayyid Ahmad Barelwi preferred to call themselves Ahl-i-Hadith (the people of the traditions of the Prophet), Tariqah-i Muhammadiyyah (the followers of the path of Muhammad) or Muwahiddun (unitarians).

¹⁰ Khan, S.A. (1990). ‘Rah-i-Sunnat aur Radd-i-Bidat’ [The Way of the Prophet and the Rejection of Innovation], in Ismail, M. (ed.) Maqalat-i-Sar Sayyid, 2^nd ed., Majlis-i-Taraqqi Adab, Lahore, Vol. 5, p. 359.Google Scholar

¹¹ The origins of the term Wahhabi was a point of dispute between Sayyid Ahmad Khan and W.W. Hunter. Hunter claimed that the term was not in use in the late 1840s, one of several points that Sayyid Ahmad Khan disputed in his reply to Hunter's book. Hunter, W.W. (1871). The Indian Musalmans: Are They Bound in Conscience to Rebel Against the Queen, Trübner, London, p. 22Google Scholar, n. 3. Khan, Review on Dr. Hunter, pp. 10–12. The use of the term Wahhabi, however, was not unknown to the British in the 1830s. Immediately after the death of Sayyid Ahmad Barelwi, a scholarly article described his followers as an ‘Indian imitation’ of the Wahhabis, Arabian. ‘Notice of the Peculiar Tenets Held by the Followers of Syed Ahmed, Taken Chiefly from the “Sirat-ul-Mustaqim,” a Principal Treatise of that Sect, Written by Moulavi Mahommed Ismail’, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1:11, 1832, p. 481Google Scholar.

¹² ‘Memorandum of the Proceedings of the Expedition Against the Pirates of the Gulf of Persia., A.D. 1819–20’, Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, 10:55, 1821, p. 153Google Scholar; and India Office, ‘Historical Memorandum on the Relations of the Wahabi Amirs and Ibn Saud with Eastern Arabia and the British Government, 1800–1934’, revised edition, 26 September 1934, India Office Records, British Library, London (hereafter IOR) PS/18/B437.

¹³ Officiating Secretary to Resident of Hyderabad, 29 June 1840, no. 96 of 29 June 1840, IOR/P/Sec/India/40; Fraser, C.H. (1885). Memoir and Correspondence of General James Stuart Fraser of the Madras Army, Whiting & Co., London, pp. 41–64Google Scholar; and Jaffar, G.M. (1991). ‘Nawwab Mubariz al-Dawlah and His Activities in Hyderabad (Dn)’, Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society, 39:3, pp. 299–306Google Scholar.

¹⁴ Hunter, Indian Musulamns, pp. 18–24; Khan, Review on Dr. Hunter, pp. 14–15.

¹⁵ Tayler, W. (1857). Brief Narrative of Events Connected with the Removal of W. Tayler, From the Commissionership of Patna, John Gray, Calcutta Gazette Office, Calcutta, p. 7.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Tayler, W. (1858a). The Patna Crisis: or Three Months at Patna, During the Insurrection of 1857, James Nisbet & Co., London, pp. 44–51.Google Scholar

¹⁷ Tayler, Patna Crisis; and Correspondence Connected with the Arrest and Trial of Lootf Ali Khan, A Banker in Patna, John Gray, Calcutta Gazette Office, Calcutta, 1858, p. 18A.

¹⁸ Tayler, Patna Crisis, p. 68.

¹⁹ Correspondence Connected with the Removal of Mr. W. Tayler from the Commissionership of Patna, John Gray, Calcutta Gazette Office, Calcutta, 1858, pp. 12–127.

²⁰ Tayler, W. (1858b). Our Crisis; or Three months at Patna During the Insurrection of 1857, Thacker & Co., CalcuttaGoogle Scholar; Tayler, W. (1882). The Patna Crisis, Allen & Co., LondonGoogle Scholar; Tayler, W. (1876). ‘Magna est Veritas’. History and the Press on the Case of Mr. William Tayler, etc., Henry Sotheran & Co., LondonGoogle Scholar; Tayler, W. (1878). Veritas Victrix. [Being Letters and Testimonials Relating to the Conduct of W. Tayler in the Indian Mutiny], William Ridgway, LondonGoogle Scholar; and Tayler, W. (1885). Justice in the Nineteenth Century, An Appeal to British Honour. [A Collection of Pamphlets and Documents Relative to the Writer's Dismissal from the Commissionership of Patna], William Ridgway, LondonGoogle Scholar. Tayler published several other similar pamphlets, with much the same content, in Calcutta and London. He marshalled enough support to have his case reviewed in Parliament in 1888, although the House of Commons voted 184 to 20 against further investigating his dismissal. House of Commons Debates, 15 June 1888, Vol. 327, cc. 322–67, <http://hansard.millbanksystems.com>; and Parliamentary Papers, H/C, 1878–79 (238 and 308); 1880 (143); 1888 (226, 247, and 258), <http://parlipapers.chadwyck.com>, [both accessed 6 November 2012].

²¹ Tayler, Brief Narrative of Events, p. 19. Emphasis in original.

²² Metcalf, T.R. (1964). The Aftermath of Revolt: India, 1857–1870, Princeton University Press, Princeton, pp. 298–303.Google Scholar

²³ Jalal, Partisans of Allah, p. 66.

²⁴ Hunter, Indian Musalmans, p. 38.

²⁵ Parliamentary Papers, H/C, 1864 (158), ‘Return to an address of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 11 February 1864; –for, “copy of papers relating to the late disturbances in the north west frontier of India”’, p. 125, <http://parlipapers.chadwyck.com>, [accessed 6 November 2012]. M. Mohar Ali has argued that this was the first time the term was officially used to describe the followers of Sayyid Ahmad. Ali, M.M. (1980). ‘Hunter's Indian Musalmans: A Re-examination of its Background’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland, 1, p. 31.

²⁶ Hunter, W.W. (1864). ‘The Indian Conspiracy of 1864’, Calcutta Review, 40:79, pp. 124–137.Google Scholar

²⁷ Papers connected with the Trial of Moulvie Ahmedoollah, of Patna, and others, for Conspiracy and Treason. Selections from the Records of the Bengal Government XLII, Alipore Jail Press, Calcutta, 1866. IOR V/23/102.

²⁸ Bayley to O.T. Burne, 20 April 1871, Lord Mayo Papers, Cambridge University Library, Add MS 7490/39/7.

²⁹ Thanesari, M.M.J. (circa 1974). Tawarikh-i-Ajib, al-maruf, Tarikh-i-Kala Pani [Strange Histories Commonly Known as the History of the Andaman Islands], Idarah-i-Ishatulmarif, Faisalabad, Pakistan, p. 40.

³⁰ Between 1864 and 1870, the Calcutta Review published four unsigned articles on the Indian Wahhabis. W.W. Hunter revealed that he had authored the first article (cited above) and cited James O'Kinealy, the officer in charge of the Wahhabi prosecutions, when quoting from one of the 1870 articles. Hunter, Indian Musalmans, p. 29, n. 2; p. 147, n. 1. ‘A Sketch of the Wahhabis in India Down to the Death of Sayyid Ahmad in 1831’, Calcutta Review, 50:100, 1870, pp. 73–104; and ‘The Wahhabis in India’, (in two parts), Calcutta Review, 51:101, 1870, pp. 177–192; and 51:102, pp. 381–399. See also Rehatsek, E. (1880). ‘The History of the Wahhábys in Arabia and in India’, Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 14:38, pp. 274–401.Google Scholar

³¹ See, for example, Robb, ‘The Impact of British Rule on Religious Community’ and Ahmad, The Wahabi Movement in India. In addition to colonial histories and administrative documents, Qeyamuddin Ahmad also used a wide range of Urdu texts and materials from the families of convicted Wahhabis in his history of the movement.

³² Great Wahabi Case, ‘Application for Writ of Habeas Corpus’, p. 15; and ‘Argument on the Rule Nisi’, p. 22.

³³ On the police investigation, see Enclosures of Judicial Despatch from the Government India, to Her Majesty's Secretary State for India, No. 52, dated 10 October 1872, IOR/L/PJ/3/1281. From 3 June 1871 to 5 August 1871, The Indian Daily News provided day-by-day coverage of the court proceedings in Patna. The Records Department of the Patna Sessions Court reports that all records from this period were destroyed in a fire.

³⁴ O'Donoghue, D.J. (2004). ‘Ingram, Thomas Dunbar (1826–1901)’, rev. Marie-Louise Legg, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography and Lee, S. (2004). ‘Anstey, Thomas Chisholm (1816–1873)’, rev. K.D. Reynolds, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, <http://www.oxforddnb.com>, [accessed 13 May 2008].

³⁵ Endacott, G.B. (2005). A Biographical Sketch-book of Early Hong Kong, reprinted Hong Kong University Press, Hong Kong, p. 90.Google Scholar

³⁶ Sanyal, R.G. (1894). Reminiscences and Anecdotes of Great Men of India, Both Official and Non-official for the Last One Hundred Years, Wooma Churn Chukerbutty, Calcutta, Vol. 1, p. 98.Google Scholar

³⁷ Great Wahabi Case, ‘Argument on the Rule Nisi’, p. 69.

³⁸ Great Wahabi Case, ‘Argument on the Rule Nisi’, p. 66.

³⁹ Great Wahabi Case, ‘Argument on the Rule Nisi’, p. 120.

⁴⁰ Great Wahabi Case, ‘Argument on the Rule Nisi’, p. 121.

⁴¹ Great Wahabi Case, ‘Argument on the Rule Nisi’, p. 127.

⁴² Great Wahabi Case, ‘Judgment of Mr. Justice Norman’, p. 12.

⁴³ Metcalf, Ideologies of the Raj, pp. 43–65.

⁴⁴ Mantena, K. (2007). ‘The Crisis of Liberal Imperialism’, in Bell, D. (ed.) Victorian Visions of Global Order: Empire and International Relations in Nineteenth-century Political Thought, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 113–135CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Mantena, K. (2010). Alibis of Empire: Henry Maine and the Ends of Liberal Imperialism, Princeton University Press, PrincetonCrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴⁵ On similar shifts in imperial ideology in Jamaica and Britain, see Hall, C. (2002). Civilising Subjects: Metropole and Colony in the English Imagination 1830–1867, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar On Africa, see Mamdani, M. (1996). Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism, Princeton University Press, Princeton, pp. 35–180Google Scholar.

⁴⁶ Hussain, N. (2003). The Jurisprudence of Emergency: Colonialism and the Rule of Law, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, pp. 92–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁴⁷ Metcalf, Ideologies of the Raj, pp. 43–65.

⁴⁸ ‘Her Majesty's Privy Council’, The Madras Jurist, 1 February 1871, p. 68.

⁴⁹ ‘Lord Mayo ats Ameer Khan, Sir William Grey ats Same. . . Case of the Defendents’, 12 May 1871, Mayo Papers, Add MS 7490/39/37, p. 8.

⁵⁰ ‘The Wahabee Case’, The Indian Daily News, 12 May 1871.

⁵¹ The Friend of India, 22 September 1870, p. 1077; ‘Habeas Corpus in India’, The Overland Summary of the Indian Daily News, Bengal Hurkaru, and Indian Gazette, 10 September 1870, p. 6; ‘Habeas Corpus in India’, The Friend of India, 1 September 1870, p. 996; and ‘Is it Legal and Fair to Criticise Counsel During a Trial?’, The Friend of India, 1 September 1870, p. 997. On events in Jamaica, see Kostal, R.W. (2005). A Jurisprudence of Power: Victorian Empire and the Rule of Law, Oxford University Press, Oxford.Google Scholar

⁵² ‘Indian Outrages’, The Pall Mall Gazette, 22 September 1871, p. 1033.

⁵³ Bayly, C.A. (1996). Empire and Information: Intelligence Gathering and Social Communication in India, 1780–1870, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 338–346Google Scholar; and Stark, U. (2007). An Empire of Books: The Naval Kishore Press and the Diffusion of the Printed Word in Colonial India, Permanent Black, RanikhetGoogle Scholar.

⁵⁴ ‘The Wahabee Case’, The Indian Daily News, 12 May 1871; and ‘The Case of Ameer Khan’, The Overland Summary of the Indian Daily News, 17 May 1871, p. 2.

⁵⁵ Today these reports are the most important source of Urdu and Bengali articles on the trial since very few vernacular newspapers from this period have been preserved.

⁵⁶ The Indian Observer, 29 July 1871, p. 409.

⁵⁷ Report on Native Papers [Bengal] [hereafter RNP], 3 December 1870, Microfilm, Centre of South Asian Studies, University of Cambridge, p. 15.

⁵⁸ Iftekhar Iqbal has discussed the fusing of religious and class-based identity in the Faraizi movement, which promoted both Islamic revival and anti-landlord agitation in Bengal. In popular discourse Faraizis were often referred to by their critics as Wahhabis. Iqbal, I. (2010). The Bengal Delta: Ecology, State and Social Change, 1840–1943, Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, pp. 67–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁵⁹ RNP, 17 September 1870, p. 6.

⁶⁰ Mendes, L.A. (circa 1870). Report of the Proceedings in the Matters of Ameer Khan and of Hashmadad Khan. . ., Daily Examiner Press, CalcuttaGoogle Scholar; and Macrae, C.C. (1870). Report of the Proceedings in the Case of Ameer Khan and Hashmadad Khan, Setting out the Arguments of Counsel, Judgment, Regulation and Acts Bearing on the Case, and the Affidavits Used at the Hearing, Englishman Press, CalcuttaGoogle Scholar.

⁶¹ Macrae, Report of the Proceedings, p. v.

⁶² ‘“Habeas Corpus” in British India’, The Madras Jurist, 1 February 1871, p. 48.

⁶³ Ingram, D.T. (1871). Two Letters on Some Recent Proceedings of the Indian Government, Williams and Norgate, LondonGoogle Scholar; and Gladstone, W.E. (1851). Two Letters to the Earl of Aberdeen, on the State Prosecutions of the Neapolitan Government, 4th ed., John Murray, LondonGoogle Scholar. The second letter in Ingram's pamphlet concerned the government's decision to pass legislation suspending zamindari collection rights in the tribal areas of Bengal, actions Ingram considered to be a violation of ‘the sacredness of private property’, p. 24.

⁶⁴ Ingram, Two Letters, p. 16.

⁶⁵ ‘The Wahabee Case’, Times of India, 9 August 1870, reprinted in The Indian Daily News, 15 August 1870.

⁶⁶ Biagini, E.F. (1992). Liberty, Retrenchment and Reform: Popular Liberalism in the Age of Gladstone, 1860–1880, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar

⁶⁷ Biagini, Liberty.

⁶⁸ Stokes, E. (1959). The English Utilitarians and India, Clarendon Press, OxfordGoogle Scholar; and Moore, R.J. (1966). Liberalism and Indian Politics 1872–1922, Edward Arnold, London. Lord Ripon, who served as viceroy from 1880 to 1884 and introduced measures for limited Indian representation in local government, land reform, and famine relief, is often cited as an example of late nineteenth-century liberalism in India. For a more in-depth discussion of the influence of liberal ideology on the colonial government in India, with particular reference to the Ripon administration, see Robb, Liberalism, Modernity, and the Nation, pp. 28–34; 135–153.

⁶⁹ Aravind Ganachari, A. (1999). ‘Evolution of the Law of “Sedition” in the Context of the Indian Freedom Struggle: 1837–1922’, in Dossal, M. and Maloni, R. (eds) State Intervention and Popular Response: Western India in the Nineteenth Century, Popular Prakashan, Mumbai, p. 150.Google Scholar

⁷⁰ RNP, 17 September 1870, pp. 2–3.

⁷¹ Chatterjee, P. (1993). The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories, Princeton University Press, Princeton, pp. 22–24.Google Scholar

⁷² Kolsky, E. (2010). Colonial Justice in British India: White Violence and the Rule of Law, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p. 73.Google Scholar

⁷³ ‘The Wahabee Case’, Times of India, 9 August 1870; and ‘The Wahabee Conspiracy’, The Overland Summary of the Indian Daily News, 5 October 1870, p. 4.

⁷⁴ ‘The Great Wahabee Case’, Overland Weekly Edition, Times of India, 13 September 1870, p. 13.

⁷⁵ ‘The Superstition of Wahabeeism Working Itself Out’, Overland Weekly Edition, Times of India, 1 August 1871, p. 12; ‘Wahabeeism: Is There Anything In It?’, Overland Weekly Edition, Times of India, 30 September 1871, p. 8; and ‘What Was Said at Home About the Assasination’, Overland Weekly Edition, Times of India, 28 October 1871, p. 13.

⁷⁶ ‘Position of Mahomedans in India’, Overland Summary of the Indian Daily News, 4 October 1871, p. 7.

⁷⁷ ‘A Word for the Wahabees’, Friend of India, 15 June 1871, pp. 687–688; ‘Another Grievance of the Defenders of Ameer Khan’, Friend of India, 17 August 1871, p. 955.

⁷⁸ Dobbin, C. (1965). ‘The Ilbert Bill: A Study of Anglo-Indian Opinion in India, 1883’, Historical Studies: Australia and New Zealand, 12:45, pp. 87–102Google Scholar; and Sinha, M. (1995). Colonial Masculinity: the ‘Manly Englishman’ and the ‘Effeminate Bengali’ in the Late Nineteenth Century, Manchester University Press, Manchester, pp. 33–68Google Scholar.

⁷⁹ I have been unable to locate any Urdu newspapers from Calcutta or Patna from the period but translations of several articles published in local Urdu papers can be found among government papers on the trial. ‘The Wahabees’, Journal of the Scientific Society of Behaur, 15 February 1871; and ‘Wahabee’, Akhbarool Akhyar, 15 February 1871, Mayo Papers, Add Ms 7490/39/34 and Add Ms 7490/39/35.

⁸⁰ The pamphlet (VT 543) is part of the India Office's collection of Urdu printed books, which lists it as published in Madras in 1867. For a longer history of debates about India's status as dar-ul-harb or dar-ul-islam, see Jalal, Partisans of Allah, pp. 68–69; 132–149.

⁸¹ Jalal, Partisans of Allah, p. 135; and Khan, Review on Dr. Hunter, pp. 46–47; xvi–xxii.

⁸² ‘Queen v. Amir Khan and Others (Appellants)’, 21 December 1871, The Bengal Law Reports of Decisions of the High Court. . ., Vol. 9, p. 47.

⁸³ The Indian Daily News, 2 August 1871; ‘Another Grievance of the Defenders of Ameer Khan’, The Friend of India, 17 August 1871, pp. 954–955; and The Friend of India, 28 December 1871, p. 1505.

⁸⁴ Ali, S.A. and Wasti, Syed Razi (ed.) (1968). Memoirs and Other Writings of Syed Ameer Ali, People's Publishing House, Lahore, p. 36.Google Scholar

⁸⁵ ‘Release of Certain Wahabee Prisoners’, February 1883, Judicial Proceedings B, National Archives of Bangladesh, Wooden Bundles, SL. No. 1, B. No. 1, File 31 of 1883, p. 28.

⁸⁶ For a more detailed discussion of the reworking of liberal ideology within the colonial administration in the late nineteenth century, see Robb, Liberalism, Modernity, and the Nation, pp. 28–34; 135–153.

⁸⁷ For examples of pamphlets attacking Wahhabi beliefs and practices, see Husain, S. (1297 AH [circa 1881 AD]). Masa'il-i-Wahhabiyan-i-Gustakh [Propositions of the Arrogant Wahhabis], Sayyid-ul-Akhbar, DelhiGoogle Scholar; and Ibrahim, Q.M. and Nuruddin, M. (1295 AH [circa 1878 AD]). Jamal ul-Millah wa ul-Din fi Radd Aqa'id il-Wahhabin [The Beauty of the Followers of Muhammad and the Faith on the Refutation of the Tenants of the Wahhabis], Matba-i Haidari, BombayGoogle Scholar. The quarterly catalogues of books published in the Punjab, Bengal, and the North West Provinces include dozens of similar pamphlets published in the years following the trials. See British Library shelfmark SV 412/8 (Bengal); SV 412/38 (NW Provinces); and SV 412/44 (Punjab). On the use of the term Wahhabi by Ahmad Riza Khan, the founder of the Ahl-i-Sunnat, see Sanyal, U. (1996). Devotional Islam and Politics in British India: Ahmad Riza Khan Barelwi and his Movement, 1870–1920, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, pp. 231–267.Google Scholar

⁸⁸ Khan, M.S.H. (1300 AH [circa 1883 AD]), Tarjuman-i-Wahhabiyyat, Matba-i-Mufid-i-Am, Agra, p. 4Google Scholar. The next year he arranged for an official in the Bhopal state to prepare a similar work in English entitled An Interpreter of Wahabiism. Nonetheless, the British resident in Bhopal forced the nawab to give up his titles and state functions. Saeedullah (1973). The Life and Works of Muhammad Siddiq Hasan Khan, Nawab of Bhopal, 1248–1307 (1832–1890), Ashraf, Lahore.

⁸⁹ Metcalf, B.D. (1982). Islamic Revival in British India: Deoband, 1860–1900, Princeton University Press, Princeton, p. 281.Google Scholar

⁹⁰ On the colonial government's concern about a potential Wahhabi threat during the nationalist period, see ‘Visit of certain Muhammadan students from the various Colleges Lahore to the Colony of Hindustani Fanatics in Chamla. . . . History of the Wahabi sect in India and the Hindustani Fanatics’, National Archives of India, Foreign and Political Department, Frontier B, October 1915, Nos. 81–3. Elizabeth Kolsky kindly referred me to this file.

⁹¹ Routledge, J. (1878). English Rule and Native Opinion in India: From Notes Taken 1870–74, Trübner & Co., London, p. 71.Google Scholar

⁹² Cole, H.H. (1874). Catalogue of the Objects of Indian Art Exhibited in the South Kensington Museum, G.E. Eyre and W. Spottiswoode, London, p. 296.Google Scholar

⁹³ Khan, Review on Dr. Hunter. See also Jalal, Partisans of Allah, pp. 138–144.

⁹⁴ Sterndale, R.A. (1879). The Afghan Knife, Sampson Low & Co., London.Google Scholar

⁹⁵ Thanesari, Tawarikh-i-Ajib, pp. 111–112.