² The Chinese committed 35 regular divisions and about the same number of irregular and guerrilla units. See Long-hsuen, Hsu and Ming-kai, Chang, comp. The History of the Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) (Taipei: Chung Wu Publishing Co., 1971), pp. 334–42.Google Scholar

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⁴ Seethe posthumous commendation issued by the Chinese government, June 5, 1946.Google ScholarZhang Shangjiang Zizhong Huazhuan [1947] Zhuanji wenxue shiliao congkan, No. 3 (Taipei: Zhuanji wenxue chubanshe, 1973), p. 74.Google Scholar

⁵ On the misleading nature of this term, See Waldron, Arthur, ‘The Warlord: Twentieth Century Chinese Understandings of Violence, Militarism, and Imperialism,’ The American Historical Review96.4 (10 1991), 1073–100.Google Scholar

⁶ In addition to Zhibo, Lin, Kangzhan junren zhi hun, other sources for Zhang's life include Zhang Shangjiang Zizhong Huazhuan [1947] (see fn. 4);Google ScholarKang, Ju, Yinglie qianqiu: Zhang Zizhong zhuan. Jindai Zhongguo congshu; Xianlie xianxian zhuanji congkan (Taipei: Jindai Zhongguo chubanshe, 1982);Google ScholarQuanguo zhengxie ziliao yanjiu weiyuanhui, Kangri mingjiang Zhang Zizhong (Beijing: Zhongguo Wenshi chubanshe, 1987);Google ScholarTongxin, Zhang (ed.), Aiguo kangri san jiangjun (Beijing: Beijing chubanshe, 1987)Google Scholar, and Lihua, Chen, Jizhan hongtudi (Hubei: Dalian chubanshe, 1994).Google Scholar

⁷ Zhibo, Lin, pp. 502–3.Google Scholar

⁸ Hsu and Chang, History, p. 180Google Scholar, say simply that he ‘left Peking’; The words quoted are from Li, Lincoln, The Japanese Army in North China 1937–1941: Problems of Political and Economic Control (Tokyo: Oxford University Press, 1975), pp. 45–7.Google Scholar See Ziming, Zhang, ‘Zhang Zizhong taoli Beiping de jingguo,’ in Kangri mingjiang Zhang Zizhong, pp. 98–101.Google Scholar

⁹ Hsu and Chang, p. 227.Google Scholar

¹⁰ Kantorowicz, Ernst H., ‘Pro Patria Mori in Medieval Political Thought,’ American Historical Review 56.3 (04 1951), 472–92;Google ScholarContamine, Philippe, ‘Mourir pour la Patrie: X–XX siècle,’ in Les lieux de mémoire II. La Nation, ed. Nora, Pierre (Paris: Gallimard, 1986), vol. 2, pp. 11–43;Google Scholar also Prost, Antoine, ‘Verdun,’ in Les lieux de mémoire, II. La Nation, vol. 2, pp. 111–41.Google Scholar

¹¹ The Battle of China, directed by Capra, Frank and Litvak, Anatole (1944). From the series ‘Why We Fight.’ Videotape distributed by Goodtimes Home Video Corp, New York, 1986.Google Scholar

¹² Chiang's, speech is in Jiang zongtong ji (Taipei: Guofang yanjiu yuan, 1960), vol. 1, pp. 962–3.Google Scholar

¹³ For a general account, in addition to Hsu and Chang, see also Ch'i, Hsi-sheng, Nationalist China at War: Military Defeats and Political Collapse, 1937–45 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1982).Google Scholar

¹⁴ Ch'i, Hsi-sheng, ‘The Military Dimension, 1942–1945,’ in China's Bitter Victory: The War with Japan 1937–1945, ed. Hsiung, James C. and Levine, Steven I. (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, Inc., 1992), p. 179,Google Scholar citing Shilun, Song, ‘Buke momie de lishi gongxian,’ Renmin ribao, August 31, 1985.Google Scholar

¹⁵ A cadre in Hebei told the author in September 1994 that many people in that province simply could not understand or accept Peking's current policy of official friendship with Tokyo.

¹⁶ On the general topic, see Prost, Antoine, ‘Les monuments aux morts: culte républicain? culte civique? culte patriotique?’ in Les lieux de mémoire I. La République, ed. Nora, Pierre (Paris: Gallimard, 1986), pp. 195–225.Google Scholar

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¹⁹ Hsiung, James C., Preface to China's Bitter Victory, xii note I.Google Scholar

²⁰ Jingsheng, Wu, ‘40 Years After: Reassessing the War in China,’ Beijing Review (12 August 1985), p. 13.Google Scholar

²¹ Suppression and official restoration of memory of the Rape of Nanjing is a topic for another essay. A memorial inscription, in Chinese, Japanese, and English, was unveiled there on August 15, 1985, commemorating the victims of the Japanese, officially numbered as 300,000. See Zhigeng, Xu (ed.), Xueji: Qinhua rijun Nanjing da tusha shilu (Beijing: Zhongguo renshi chubanshe, 1994).Google Scholar In its entry for the city, the 1973 Nagel guide (note 17) does not mention the Rape of Nanjing.

²² On iconoclasm, see Yü-sheng, Lin, The Crisis of Chinese Consciousness: Radical Antitraditionalism in the May Fourth Era (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1979).Google Scholar

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²⁴ Smedley, Agnes, Battle Hymn of China (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1943), p.442.Google Scholar For Smedley, see MacKinnon, Janice R. and MacKinnon, Stephen R., Agnes Smedley: The Life and Times of an American Radical (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988).Google Scholar

²⁵ ‘Zhang Zizhong,’ in Jieqing, Hu and Xingzhi, Wang (eds), Lao She juzuo quanji (Beijing: Zhongguo xijuchubanshe, 1982), vol. I, pp. 119–231, see p. 139m.Google ScholarThree Kingdoms, which every Chinese knows, tells the story of a heroic band of sworn brothers who give all in their attempt to save the tottering Han dynasty from its doom. See the superb Three Kingdoms: A Historical Novel Attributed to Luo Guanzhong. Translated from the Chinese with Afterword and Notes by Roberts, Moss (Berkeley: University of California Press; Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1991).Google Scholar

²⁶ Zhibo, Lin, p. 467.Google Scholar

²⁷ Ibid., p. 461; Zhang shangjiang Zizhong Huazhuan, p. 61.

²⁸ Zhibo, Lin, pp. 468–71; the words quoted are at 470.Google Scholar

²⁹ Ibid., p. 471.

³⁰ Ibid.; for the photo, see also Smedley, p. 452.

³¹ Zhibo, Lin, p. 473.Google Scholar

³² Ibid., p. 477.

³³ For a lively examination of this topic see Kraus, Richard Curt, Brushes with Power: Modern Politics and the Chinese Art of Calligraphy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991).Google Scholar

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³⁵ Ibid., p. 473.

³⁶ See Wang, C. H., ‘Towards Defining a Chinese Heroism,’ Jounal of the American Oriental Society 95.1 (1975), 25–34;Google ScholarMcMullen, D. I., ‘The Cult of Ch'i T'ai-kung and T'ang Attitudes to the Military.’ T'ang Studies No. 7 (1989), 59–103;Google ScholarLewis, Mark Edward, Sanctioned Violence in Early China (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1990).Google Scholar

³⁷ Watson, James L., ‘The Structure of Chinese Funerary Rites: Elementary Forms, Ritual Sequence, and the Primary Performance,’ in Death Ritual in Late Imperial and Modern China, ed. Watson, James L. and Rawski, Evelyn S. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), pp. 12–15, p. 15 note 40.Google Scholar

³⁸ Smedley, Battle Hymn of China, p. 444.Google Scholar

³⁹ Ayling, Alan, A Collection of Chinese Lyrics (New York: Chelsea House, 1965), p. 153.Google Scholar The Chinese text may be found in Yunyi, Hu (ed.), Song ci xuan (Hong Kong: Zhonghua shuju, 1970), pp. 200–1.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ Giles, Herbert A., A Chinese Biographical Dictionary (Reprint ed. Taipei: Ch'eng Wen Publishing Co., 1971), p. 949.Google ScholarKaplan, Edward H., ‘Yüeh Fei and the Founding of the Southern Sung Dynasty,’ Ph.D. dissertation, University of Iowa, 1970Google Scholar, is an excellent study. Note that guo refers to the dynasty and ruler, not to the ‘nation’ in the modern sense.

⁴¹ Zhibo, Lin, pp. 477–8.Google Scholar

⁴² See Giles, Herbert A., A Chinese–English Dictionary. Second Edition, revised and enlarged (Reprint Edition: Taipei: Ch'eng-wen Publishing Company, 1972), p. 605Google Scholar; also Ci yuan (Beijing: Shangwu yinshuguan, 1984), vol. I, p. 1683.Google Scholar

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⁴⁴ See Ibid., p. 576. The term shang was also used significantly in the celebrated 1988 television series He shang or ‘River Elegy.’ See Bodman, Richard W., annotator, Deathsong of the River: A Reader's Guide the the Chinese T.V. Series Heshang (Ithaca, N.Y.: East Asia Program, Cornell University, 1991)Google Scholar; also Waldron, Arthur, ‘Representing China: The Great Wall and Cultural Nationalism in the Twentieth Century,’ in Cultural Nationalism in East Asia, edited by Befu, Harumi (Berkeley: Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley: 1993), pp. 36–60.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ Zhibo, Lin, p. 474.Google Scholar

⁴⁶ See Struve, Lynn A., The Southern Ming, 1644–1662 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984).Google Scholar

⁴⁷ Author's personal information (with photograph) from the late Bonavia, David, January 6, 1985.Google Scholar

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⁵⁰ Kōjirō, Yoshikawa, Five Hundred Years of Chinese Poetry, 1150–1650: The Chin, Yuan, and Ming Dynasties. Translated with a Preface by Wixted, John Timothy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1989), pp. 56–7.Google Scholar

⁵¹ Tianxiang, Wen, ‘Yidai yiyan’ in Shun, Liu Shih (trans.), One Hundred and One More Chinese Poems, pp. 144–5.Google Scholar

⁵² Liu, p. 139, notes 2, 3, 4.

⁵³ Dikötter, Frank, The Discourse of Race in Modern China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1992), p. 97.Google Scholar Dikötter cites a 1903 essay by Qichao, Liang (1873–1929) about Johann Kaspar Bluntschli (1808–1881), the Swiss legal scholar, and does not comment on what seems a possible Japanese origin of the term.Google Scholar

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⁵⁶ See the illustration in Zhang Shangjiang Zizhong Huazhuan, p. 45.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ Mencius, Part I, Chapter II, 11–15Google Scholar, in Legge, James (trans.), The Chinese Classics, Second Edition, Revised (Reprint ed.: Taipei, Wenshizhe, 1971), vol. I, pp. 189–90.Google Scholar Translation slightly modifies that in Hall, David L. and Ames, Roger T., Thinking Through Confucius (New York: University of New York Press, 1987), p. 94.Google Scholar

⁵⁸ See Daxue [‘The Great Learning’] I.3 where the concept of ‘illustrating illustrious virtue’ [ming ming de] is made the basis of social order. ‘The ancients who wished to illustrate illustrious virtue throughout the kingdom, first ordered well their own States. Wishing to order well their States, they first regulated their families. Wishing to regulate their families, they first cultivated their persons. Wishing to cultivate their persons, they first cultivated their persons. Wishing to cultivate their persons, they first rectified their hearts,’ and so forth until ‘Their States being rightly governed, the whole kingdom was made tranquil and happy.’ Legge, , The Chinese Classics, vol. I, pp. 357–9.Google Scholar

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⁶⁰ This is an enormous topic. To my mind, the most profound treatment is Masson, Michel C., Philosophy and Tradition, The Interpretation of China's Philosophic Past: Fung Yu-lan, 1939–1949, Variétés Sinologiques–Nouvelle Série, No. 71 (Taipei, Paris, Hong Kong: Institut Ricci, 1985).Google Scholar

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⁶² Mote, F. W., personal communication, 31 January 1995Google Scholar. See Gongquan, Xiao, Zhongguo zhengzhi sixiangshi (Originally published 1946. Taipei: Lianjing chuban shiye gongsi, 1982), pp. 542–3.Google Scholar I am indebted to Frederick Mote for references in this and in notes 63, 64, and 65.

⁶³ Zongyi, Rao, ‘Helanshan yu Manjianghong,’ in Xuantang jilin (Taipei: Mingwen shuju, 1982), vol. 2, pp. 794–811.Google Scholar

⁶⁴ See note 10, above.

⁶⁵ Liu, James T. C., ‘Yue Fei,’ in Liang Song shi yanjiu huibian (Taipei: Lianjing chuban shiye gongsi, 1987), pp. 185–207Google Scholar; see pp. 191–2.

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⁶⁸ Ibid. For Lao She's remarks on the character of Mo Zizhuang, see Jieqing, Hu and Xingzhi, Wang, Lao She juzuo quanji, vol. I, p. 120.Google Scholar In Chongqing Lao She lived at Beipei; he was also long acquainted with Feng Yuxiang. See Vohra, Ranbir, Lao She and the Chinese Revolution. Harvard East Asian Monographs, No. 55 (Cambridge, Mass.: East Asian Research Center, 1974), pp. 127–8.Google Scholar

⁶⁹ Zhibo, Lin, p. 482.Google Scholar

⁷⁰ Ibid., p. 475.

⁷¹ Ibid., pp. 483–4.

⁷² Ibid., pp. 484–5.

⁷³ Ibid., p. 486.

⁷⁴ Ibid., p. 476.

⁷⁵ Zhang Shangjiang Zizhong Huazhuan, pp. 65–6.Google Scholar

⁷⁶ Zhibo, Lin, p. 476.Google Scholar

⁷⁷ Zhang Shangjiang Zizhong Huazhuan, p. 67.Google Scholar

⁷⁸ Ibid., p. 68.

⁷⁹ Zhibo, Lin, pp. 476–7.Google Scholar

⁸⁰ Ibid., p. 477.

⁸¹ Ibid., p. 481.

⁸² Ibid., pp. 481–2.

⁸³ Zhang Shangjiang Zizhong Huazhuan, final page (no number).

⁸⁴ Wheeler, Marcus, The Oxford Russian–English Dictionary (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), p. 467.Google Scholar See Fuller, William C. Jr, Strategy and Power in Russia 1600–1914 (New York: The Free Press, 1992), pp. 207–9.Google Scholar

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⁹⁴ junqu, Wuhan zongsiling bu (ed.), Lidai zhongyuan zhanji (Wuhan, 1972), p. 278Google Scholar, cited in Liu Zhibo, p. 489, note 1.

⁹⁵ Jingrong, Wu (ed.), The Pinyin Chinese–English Dictionary (Beijing: The Commercial Press, 1979), pp. 34, 307;Google ScholarZishen, Zhang and Chunde, Xue, Biming Zhongguo de baiming rijun jiangling (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1990).Google Scholar

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⁹⁸ Zhibo, Lin, p. 479.Google Scholar

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¹⁰¹ Ibid., p. 491.

¹⁰² Ibid.

¹⁰³ Ibid., p. 492.

¹⁰⁴ Ibid.

¹⁰⁵ Ibid., p. 478; the text is in Chen Lihua, Jizhan hongtudi, pp. 346–7.

¹⁰⁶ ‘Mao Zedong zhimingdu xunse,’ Shjie ribao [World Journal] January 3, 1995, p. A 10.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁷ The China Confucius Society was founded in 1985, and as is well known, ‘Confucian values’ are now increasingly invoked to justify, among other things, authiritarian rule. For sacrifices to the Yellow Emperor see Zhuanming, Luo, ‘Gongji Yandiling,’ Renmin ribao (Overseas ed.), November 28, 1994, p. 7.Google Scholar The publication of a ‘Traditional Chinese Culture Reader’ [Zhongguo chuantong wenhua duben] is announced in Renmin ribao (Overseas ed.), November 19, 1994, p. 3. Notices of historical restorations come almost daily. For more detail see Waldron, ‘Representing China:,’ also idem, ‘Scholarship and Patriotic Education: The Great Wall Conference, 1994,’ China Quarterly, No. 143 (09 1995), pp. 844–50.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁸ Ling, Liu, ‘Raising the Red Flag,’ Beijing This Month, No. 10 (September 1994), pp. 8–9.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁹ On this process, Schneider, Laurence A., ‘National Essence and the New Intelligentsia,’ in Furth, Charlotte (ed.), The Limits of Change: Essays on Conservative Alternatives in Republican China (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976, pp. 57–89Google Scholar, is still excellent.

¹¹⁰ Wakeman, Frederic Jr, ‘Mao's Remains,’ in Death Ritual in Late Imperial and Modern China (see fn. 37), pp. 257–9Google Scholar; See also Youchun, Xu and Zhiming, Wu, Sun Zhongshan fengan dadian (Beijing: Huawen chubanshe, 1989).Google Scholar

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