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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 02 May 2018
The past two decades have witnessed a resurgence of work on Marcus Garvey, Garveyism, and the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) in the American academy. Building on a first wave of Garveyism scholarship (1971–1988), and indebted to the archival and curatorial work of Robert A. Hill and the editors of the Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers, this new work has traced the resonance of Garveyism across a staggering number of locations: from the cities and farms of North America to the labor compounds and immigrant communities of Central America to the colonial capitals of the Caribbean and Africa. It has pushed the temporal dimensions of Garveyism, connecting it backward to pan-African and black nationalist discourses and mobilizations as early as the Age of Revolution, and forward to the era of decolonization and Black Power. It has revealed the ways that Garveyism, a mass movement rooted in community aspirations, ideals, debates, and prejudices, offers a forum for excavating African diasporic discourses, particularly their contested gender politics. It has revealed that much more work remains to be done in Brazil, West Africa, Britain, France, and elsewhere.
1 In addition to a slew of important articles and book chapters, a number of books on Garveyism have been published since the turn of the century. See Ronald J. Stephens and Adam Ewing, eds., Global Garveyism (Gainsville, FL, forthcoming); Ewing, Adam, The Age of Garvey: How a Jamaican Activist Created a Mass Movement and Changed Global Black Politics (Princeton, NJ, 2014)Google Scholar; Jolly, Kenneth S., “By Our Own Strength”: William Sherrill, the UNIA, and the Fight for African American Self-Determination in Detroit (New York, 2013)Google Scholar; Vinson, Robert Trent, The Americans are Coming! Dreams of African American Liberation in Segregationist South Africa (Athens, OH, 2012)Google Scholar; Spady, James G., Marcus Garvey: Jazz, Reggae, Hip Hop & the African Diaspora (Philadelphia, 2011)Google Scholar; James, C. Boyd, Garvey, Garveyism, and the Antinomies in Black Redemption (Trenton, NJ, 2009)Google Scholar; Bandele, Ramla, Black Star: African American Activism in the International Political Economy (Urbana, IL, 2008)Google Scholar; Rolinson, Mary G., Grassroots Garveyism: The Universal Negro Improvement Association in the Rural South, 1920–1927 (Chapel Hill, NC, 2007)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Harold, Claudrena N., The Rise and Fall of the Garvey Movement in the Urban South, 1918–1942 (New York, 2007)Google Scholar; Taylor, Ula Y., The Veiled Garvey: The Life and Times of Amy Jacques Garvey (Chapel Hill, NC, 2002)Google Scholar.
2 Books published during the first wave of Garveyism scholarship include Lewis, Rupert, Marcus Garvey: Anti-Colonial Champion (Trenton, NJ, 1988)Google Scholar; Lewis, Rupert and Bryan, Patrick, eds., Garvey, His Work and Impact (Mona, Jamaica, 1988)Google Scholar; Lewis, Rupert and Warner-Lewis, Maureen, eds., Garvey: Africa, Europe, the Americas (Kingston, Jamaica, 1986)Google Scholar; Martin, Tony, The Pan-African Connection: From Slavery to Garvey and Beyond (Dover, MA, 1983)Google Scholar; Martin, Tony, Marcus Garvey, Hero: A First Biography (Dover, MA, 1983)Google Scholar; Martin, Tony, Literary Garveyism: Garvey, Black Arts, and the Harlem Renaissance (Dover, MA, 1983)Google Scholar; Tolbert, Emory J., The UNIA in Black Los Angeles: Ideology and Community in the American Garvey Movement (Los Angeles, 1980)Google Scholar; Burkett, Randall K., Garveyism as a Religious Movement: The Institutionalization of a Black Civil Religion (Metuchen, NJ, 1978)Google Scholar; Martin, Tony, Race First: The Ideological and Organizational Struggles of Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association (Dover, MA, 1986)Google Scholar; Clarke, John Henrik, ed., with the assistance of Garvey, Amy Jacques, Marcus Garvey and the Vision of Africa (New York, 1974)Google Scholar; Vincent, Theodore G., Black Power and the Garvey Movement (Berkeley, CA, 1971)Google Scholar. The first ten volumes of the remarkable Garvey Papers were published by the University of California Press between 1983 and 2006. Since 2011, an additional three volumes have been published by Duke University Press. All of this work has been conducted under the direction of the world's preeminent Garveyism scholar, Robert A. Hill.
3 At the root of black nationalism is the belief that race has been the fundamental category shaping the emergence of the modern world, beginning from at least the inauguration of the Atlantic slave trade. Black nationalists share a profound skepticism that this modern world system, which is defined by European political, economic, and cultural hegemony, can be reformed from within, via integrationist or universalist strategies. They thus embrace strategies that seek to build centers of autonomous power that might better resist or confront the racialized power of the West. For further discussion of black nationalism, see Dawson, Michael C., Black Visions: The Roots of Contemporary African-American Political Ideologies (Chicago, 2001), 21–2, 85–134Google Scholar. For another helpful working definition of black nationalism, see Blain, Keisha N., Set the World on Fire: Black Nationalist Women and the Global Struggle for Freedom (Philadelphia, 2018), 5–6Google Scholar.
4 See, for example, two excellent recent surveys of African American history: Holt, Thomas C., Children of Fire: A History of African Americans (New York, 2011), 260Google Scholar; Tuck, Stephen, We Ain't What We Ought to Be: The Black Freedom Struggle from Emancipation to Obama (Cambridge, MA, 2010), 163Google Scholar. See also Kevin Gaines's framing of African American historiography in “African-American History,” in American History Now, ed. Foner, Eric and McGirr, Lisa (Philadelphia, 2011), 400–20Google Scholar.
5 Dagbovie, Pero Gaglo, African American History Reconsidered (Urbana, IL, 2010), 3–5Google Scholar; Lewis, David Levering, “Radical History: Toward Inclusiveness,” Journal of American History 76, no. 2 (Sept. 1989): 471–4, here 472CrossRefGoogle Scholar, quoted in Dagbovie, African American History Reconsidered, 4.
6 I am borrowing the notion of a liberal-integrationist framework from Steven Hahn. See Hahn, Steven, A Nation Under Our Feet: Black Political Struggles in the Rural South from Slavery to the Great Migration (Cambridge, MA, 2003), 6Google Scholar; Hahn, Steven, The Political Worlds of Slavery and Freedom (Cambridge, MA, 2009), 159–60CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
7 William Strickland, “On Genovese,” Institute of the Black World Papers, William Strickland Collection, box 3: Addresses, Articles, and Essays, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York Public Library, New York City, NY [hereafter Schomburg Center, NYPL].
8 Burgess is quoted in Novick, Peter, That Noble Dream: The “Objectivity Question” and the American Historical Profession (Cambridge, UK, 1988), 75CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Meier, August and Rudwick, Elliott, Black History and the Historical Profession, 1915–1980 (Urbana, IL, 1986), 3–4Google Scholar; Lewis, Earl, “To Turn as on a Pivot: Writing African Americans into a History of Overlapping Diasporas,” American Historical Review 100, no. 3 (June 1995): 765–87, here 767–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Tyrrell, Ian, “Making Nations/Making States: American Historians in the Context of Empire,” Journal of American History 86, no. 3 (Dec. 1999): 1015–44, here 1021–2CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
9 Robinson, Cedric J., Black Marxism: The Making of the Black Radical Tradition (1983; Chapel Hill, NC, 2000), 81–2Google Scholar. This point is made by Kelley, Robin D. G., “‘But a Local Phase of a World Problem’: Black History's Global Vision, 1883–1950,” Journal of American History 86, no. 3 (Dec. 1999): 1045–77, here 1062CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
10 Du Bois, W. E. B., “The Propaganda of History,” in Black Reconstruction in America 1860–1880 (1935; New York, 1969), 726Google Scholar.
11 Meier and Rudwick, Black History, 97–8; Blassingame, John W., “Black Studies and the Role of the Historian,” in New Perspectives on Black Studies, ed. Blassingame, John W. (Urbana, IL, 1971), 207–26, here 217Google Scholar.
12 Meier and Rudwick, Black History, 8–74.
13 Kelley, “But a Local Phase,” 1058–9. Du Bois's magisterial Black Reconstruction in America was not reviewed in the profession's flagship journal, the American Historical Review. See Tyrrell, “Making Nations,” 1019.
14 Tyrrell, “Making Nations,” 1015–20; Novick, That Noble Dream, 469; Thelen, David, “The Nation and Beyond: Transnational Perspectives on United States History,” Journal of American History 86, no. 3 (Dec. 1999): 965–75, 965–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Sloane, William M., “History and Democracy,” American Historical Review 1, no. 1 (Oct. 1895): 1–23, here 4CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
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21 Harding, “Beyond Chaos,” 268–89. Sterling Stuckey took more care to root this “new” history in the ground tended by older black scholars on the margins of the academy, particularly W. E. B. Du Bois: Stuckey, “Twilight of Our Past,” 264.
22 For other examples of this thinking, see Stuckey, “Twilight of Our Past,” 290; Hare, Nathan, “The Challenge of the Black Scholar,” The Black Scholar 1, no. 2 (1969): 58–63CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Nathan Hare, “What Should Be the Role of Afro-American Education in the Undergraduate Curriculum?” in New Perspectives on Black Studies, 3–15; Thelwell, Mike, “Black Studies: A Political Perspective,” Massachusetts Review 10, no. 4 (Autumn 1969): 703–12Google Scholar; Harding, “Beyond Chaos,” 279.
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24 The other women lecturers were the writer Toni Cade (Bambara) and National Black Theater founder Barbara Ann Teer. See the “Black Heritage is Us” pamphlet in the folder 39, box 28, John Henrik Clarke Papers, Schomburg Center, NYPL.
25 For recent work that centers black women within black nationalist politics and ideology, see Blain, Set the World on Fire; Farmer, Ashley D., Remaking Black Power: How Black Women Transformed an Era (Chapel Hill, NC, 2017)Google Scholar.
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36 For example, much trenchant criticism has been written about black nationalism's often problematic gender politics. See White, E. Frances, “Africa on My Mind: Gender, Counter Discourse and African-American Nationalism,” Journal of Women's History 2, no. 1 (Spring 1990): 73–97CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Davies, Carol Boyce, Black Women, Writing and Identity: Migrations of the Subject (London, 1994), 49–50Google Scholar; Mitchell, Michele, Righteous Propagation: African Americans and the Politics of Racial Destiny after Reconstruction (Chapel Hill, NC, 2004)Google Scholar. Keisha N. Blain's new book examines the dynamic efforts of black nationalist women to move to the center of black nationalist praxis. See Blain, Set the World on Fire.
37 “Interview with Chandler Owen and A. Philip Randolph by Mowbray White,” August 20, 1920, and “Interview with W. E. B. Du Bois by Charles Mowbray White,” August 23, 1920, in The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers, vol. II: August 1919–August 1920, ed. Hill, Robert A. (Berkeley, CA, 1983), 609, 620Google Scholar.
38 Du Bois, who had once demanded that Garvey either be “locked up or sent home,” later softened his views on his long-time rival. See Bois, Du, “A Lunatic or a Traitor?” The Crisis 28, no. 1 (May 1924): 8–9Google Scholar; and Bois, Du, Dusk of Dawn: An Essay toward an Autobiography of a Race Concept (1940; New Brunswick, NJ, 2011), 277–8Google Scholar.
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43 Cronon, E. David, “Review of Garvey and Garveyism, by A. Jacques Garvey,” Caribbean Studies 5, no. 2 (July 1965): 74–5Google Scholar. As far as I am aware, there was only one other review of Garvey and Garveyism published: Lewis, Gordon K., “Review of Garvey and Garveyism, by A. Jacques Garvey,” Caribbean Quarterly 10, no. 3 (Sept. 1964): 50–2CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Lewis, the great Caribbean scholar, is nearly as dismissive as Cronon, deeming the work “a labour of love and an act of dedication,” not “a critical book in the academic sense.” For an account of the marginalization of Garvey and Garveyism by scholars, see Taylor, Ula Yvette, The Veiled Garvey: The Life and Times of Amy Jacques Garvey (Chapel Hill, NC, 2002), 223–4Google Scholar. See also Adler, Karen S., “‘Always Leading Our Men in Service and Sacrifice’: Amy Jacques Garvey, Feminist Black Nationalist,” Gender and Society 6, no. 3 (Sept. 1992): 346–75CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
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49 See, for example, Meier's and Rudwick's dismissal of Harding's history of American slavery, There Is a River (1981), as describing nothing but “a long memory of ineradicable and only modestly modifiable white racism, and an equally constant deep river of black protest, glorious in itself, but largely futile”: Meier and Rudwick, Black History, 228–9. See also Meier, August, “Whither the Black Perspective in Afro-American Historiography,” Journal of American History 70, no. 1 (June 1983): 101–5Google Scholar; Novick, That Noble Dream, 490; and Nell Irvin Painter's rebuttal to the negative reception of the book in “Who Decides What Is History?” Nation, Mar. 6, 1982, 276–8.
50 Meier and Rudwick, Black History, 299.
51 My thinking on Afrocentrism has been greatly clarified and aided by my discussions with Sarah Balakrishnan. See Balakrishnan, “Afrocentrism Revisited: On Black Nationalism and the Politics of African History,” unpublished manuscript. For “unthinkable” history, see Trouillot, Michel-Rolph, Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History (Boston, 1995), 70–107Google Scholar.
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76 See, for example, Nicole Bourbonnais, “Our Joan of Arc: Women, Gender, and Authority in the Harmony Division of the UNIA,” in Global Garveyism, forthcoming; Blain, Keisha N., “‘We Want to Set the World on Fire’: Black Nationalist Women and Diasporic Politics in the New Negro World, 1940–1944,” Journal of Social History 49, no. 1 (Sept. 2015): 194–212CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Taylor, Ula Y., “‘Negro Women Are Great Thinkers as Well as Doers’: Amy Jacques-Garvey and Community Feminism in the United States, 1924–1927,” Journal of Women's History 12, no. 2 (Summer 2000): 104–26CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bair, Barbara, “‘Ethiopia Shall Stretch Forth Her Hands Unto God’: Laura Kofey and the Gendered Vision of Redemption in the Garvey Movement,” in A Mighty Baptism: Race, Gender, and the Creation of American Protestantism, eds. Juster, Susan and MacFarlane, Lisa (Ithaca, NY, 1996), 38–61Google Scholar.
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79 West, “Garveyism Root and Branch.”