¹ For biographical details, consult James Taylor's biographical memoir in John Hughlings Jackson, Neurological Fragments, London, Oxford University Press, 1925, pp. 1–26. See also Macdonald Critchley and Eileen A Critchley, John Hughlings Jackson: father of English Neurology, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1998.

² Taylor, op. cit., note 1 above, p. 2.

³ MS 8241/18, fol. 58, no. 7 in the Society of Apothecaries' Court of Examiners' Candidates' Entry Book (1855–1858), which is a microfilm of a document located in the Guildhall library, London. See also the seminal study by Samuel H Greenblatt, ‘The major influences on the early life and work of John Hughlings Jackson’, Bull Hist Med, 1965, 39: 346–376, pp. 347 note 3.

⁴ J H Wetherill, ‘The York Medical School’, Med Hist, 1961, 5: 253–269, p. 257.

⁵ For an overview of Laycock's life and work, see Michael Barfoot, “To ask the suffrages of the patrons”: Thomas Laycock and the Edinburgh chair of medicine, 1855, London, Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, 1995, pp. 1–22.

⁶ Society of Apothecaries' Court of Examiners' Candidates' Entry Book (1855–1858), op. cit., note 3 above, p. 58, no. 7. This licence would not have allowed Hughlings Jackson to practise in the City of London or within a seven-mile radius of it. See also S W F Holloway, ‘The Apothecaries' Act, 1815: a reinterpretation. Part I: The origins of the Act’, Med Hist, 1966, 10: 107–29, pp. 124–125, and ‘The Apothecaries' Act, 1815: a reinterpretation. Part II: The consequences of the Act’, Med Hist, 1966, 10: 221–236, p. 233.

⁷ See MS 8241/18, fol. 58, in the Society of Apothecaries' Court of Examiners' Candidates' Entry Book (1855–1858), op. cit., note 3 above.

⁸ ‘London Hospital. Presentation of testimonial to Dr. Hughlings Jackson, F.R.S., by Sir James Paget’, Br Med J, 1895, ii: 861–863.

⁹ M Jeanne Peterson, The medical profession in mid-Victorian London, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1978, p. 11.

¹⁰ Critchley and Critchley, op. cit., note 1 above, pp. 29–31.

¹¹ Ibid., pp. 1–32.

¹² Greenblatt cites this document as being in the Minute Book 1844–1870. MS in the library of the York Medical Society. See Greenblatt, op. cit., note 3 above, pp. 350–351.

¹³ Ibid., p. 351.

¹⁴ See Herbert Hutchinson's quotations from his father's diary entries in Herbert Hutchinson, Jonathan Hutchinson: life and letters, London, William Heinemann Medical Books, 1946, pp. 21–26. See also ‘Obituary. Sir Jonathan Hutchinson, F.R.C.S., F.R.S.’, Br Med J, 1913, i: 1398–1401, p. 1398.

¹⁵ See Irvine Loudon, Medical care and the general practitioner, 1750–1850, Oxford, Clarendon, 1986, pp. 214–227, and also J A Shepherd, ‘Medical teaching at St. Andrews University 1413–1972’, Br Med J, 1972, iii: 38–41.

¹⁶ Records of the University of St Andrews. The Critchleys write that Hughlings Jackson submitted a thesis in support of his degree, but we could find no trace of such a thesis, which was in any case not required for the degree. See Critchley and Critchley, op. cit., note 1 above, p. 33.

¹⁷ Jonathan Hutchinson, ‘Reports of hospital practice in medicine and surgery’, Med Times Gaz, 1860, ii: 31–34.

¹⁸ Jonathan Hutchinson and John Hughlings Jackson, ‘Reports of hospital practice in medicine and surgery’, Med Times Gaz, 1861, i: 60–63.

¹⁹ See Jonathan Hutchinson, ‘The late Dr. Hughlings Jackson: recollections of a lifelong friendship’, Br Med J, 1911, ii: 1551–1554. For the life and work of Brown-Séquard, consult Michael J Aminoff, Brown-Séquard: a visionary of science, New York, Raven Press, 1993.

²⁰ See ‘Obituary. John Hughlings Jackson, M.D., F.R.C.P., F.R.S.’, Br Med J, 1911, ii: 950–954, p. 950, and ‘Obituary. John Hughlings Jackson, M.D. St. And., F.R.C.P. Lond., LL.D., D.Sc.,F.R.S.’, Lancet, 1911, ii: 1103–1107.

²¹ See J Hughlings Jackson, ‘On the study of diseases of the nervous system. A lecture delivered June, 1864’, Clinical Lectures and Reports by the Medical and Surgical Staff of the London Hospital, 1864, 1: 146–158, and also J Hughlings Jackson, ‘Loss of speech: its association with valvular disease of the heart, and with hemiplegia on the right side.—Defects of smell.—Defects of speech in chorea.—Arterial regions in epilepsy’, Clinical Lectures and Reports by the Medical and Surgical Staff of the London Hospital, 1864, 1: 388–471.

²² See Herbert Hutchinson, op. cit., note 14 above, p. 229.

²³ Letter quoted in Critchley and Critchley, op. cit., note 1 above, p. 173.

²⁴ See Taylor, op. cit., note 1 above, p. 22, and also Critchley and Critchley, op. cit., note 1 above, pp. 41–43.

²⁵ See J Hughlings Jackson, ‘Abstract of the Gulstonian [sic] lectures on certain points in the study and classification of diseases of the nervous system. Delivered at the Royal College of Physicians’, Lancet, 1869, i: 307–308, 344–345, 379–380, and ‘Gulstonian lectures on certain points in the study and classification of diseases of the nervous system. Delivered at the Royal College of Physicians’, Br Med J, 1869, i: 184, 210, and 236.

²⁶ See Lancet, ibid., p. 307.

²⁷ J Hughlings Jackson, ‘A study of convulsions’, St Andrews Medical Graduates' Association Transactions 1869, 1870, pp. 162–204. See also Owsei Temkin, The falling sickness, 2nd ed. rev., Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1971, pp. 328–344.

²⁸ G Fritsch, E Hitzig, ‘Über die elektrische Erregbarkeit des Grosshirn’, Archiv für Anatomie, Physiologie und wissenschaftliche Medicin, 1870: 300–332.

²⁹ See J Hughlings Jackson, ‘On the scientific and empirical investigations of epilepsies’, Med Press Circular, 1874, 18: 325–327, 347–352, 389–392, 409–412, 475–478, 497–499, 519–521; 1875, 19: 353–355, 397–400, 419–421; 1875, 20: 313–315, 355–358, 487–489; 1876, 21: 63–65, 129–131, 173–176, 313–316; 1876, 22: 145–147, 185–187, 475–477.

³⁰ Taylor, op. cit., note 1 above, p. 15.

³¹ J Hughlings Jackson, ‘The Croonian lectures on evolution and dissolution of the nervous system. Delivered at the Royal College of Physicians, March, 1884’, Br Med J, 1884, i: 591–593, 660–663, 703–707.

³² ‘Obituary’, Br Med J, note 20 above, pp. 951–2.

³³ J Hughlings Jackson, ‘The Hughlings Jackson lecture on the relations of different divisions of the central nervous system to one another and to parts of the body. Delivered before the Neurological Society, Dec. 8th, 1897’, Lancet, 1898, i: 79–87.

³⁴ Taylor, op. cit., note 1 above, pp. 21–22.

³⁵ ‘Opening of the winter session in the medical schools. London Hospital. Presentation of testimonial to Dr. Hughlings Jackson, F.R.S., by Sir James Paget’, Br Med J, 1895, ii: 861–863.

³⁶ Owsei Temkin, ‘Gall and the phrenological movement’, Bull Hist Med, 1947, 21: 275–321.

³⁷ J Hughlings Jackson, Suggestions for studying diseases of the nervous system on Professor Owen's vertebral theory, London, H K Lewis, 1863, on p. 1.

³⁸ Ibid., on p. iv.

³⁹ Hughlings Jackson, ‘On the study of diseases of the nervous system’, op. cit., note 21 above.

⁴⁰ Ibid., on p. 146.

⁴¹ Ibid., on p. 147.

⁴² Ibid., p. 149.

⁴³ Ibid., p. 152.

⁴⁴ Ibid., pp. 157–158

⁴⁵ ibid., p. 157.

⁴⁶ ‘Clinical lectures and reports by the medical and surgical staff of the London Hospital’, Br Med J, 1864, ii: 523–524, p. 524.

⁴⁷ Greenblatt, op. cit., note 3 above, p. 350.

⁴⁸ Robert Bentley Todd, Clinical lectures on paralysis, diseases of the brain, and other affections of the nervous system, Philadelphia, Lindsay and Blakiston, 1855, p. 204.

⁴⁹ Edward H Reynolds, ‘Todd, Faraday and the electrical basis of epilepsy’, Epilepsia, 2004, 45: 985–992.

⁵⁰ Todd, op. cit., note 48 above, pp. 204–205.

⁵¹ J Hughlings Jackson, ‘Note on lateral deviation of the eyes in hemiplegia and in certain epileptiform seizures’, Lancet, 1866, i: 311–312, p. 311.

⁵² J Hughlings Jackson, ‘Note on the comparison and contrast of regional palsy and spasm’, Lancet, 1867, i: 295–297, p. 296.

⁵³ J Hughlings Jackson, ‘Remarks on the disorderly movements of chorea and convulsion’, Med Times Gaz, 1867, ii: 642–643, p. 643.

⁵⁴ J Hughlings Jackson, ‘Abstract of the Gulstonian [sic] lectures on certain points in the study and classification of diseases of the nervous system. Delivered at the Royal College of Physicians’, Lancet, 1869, i: 307–308.

⁵⁵ J Hughlings Jackson, ‘A study of convulsions’, op. cit., note 27 above, p. 162.

⁵⁶ J Hughlings Jackson, ‘On the anatomical, physiological, and pathological investigations of epilepsies’, West Riding Lunatic Asylum Medical Reports, 1873, 3: 315–349.

⁵⁷ E H Reynolds, ‘Todd, Hughlings Jackson, and the electrical basis of epilepsy’, Lancet, 2001, 358: 575–577.

⁵⁸ Jonathan Hutchinson, op. cit., note 19 above, p. 1553.

⁵⁹ J Hughlings Jackson, ‘The Lumleian Lectures on convulsive seizures’ Lancet, 1890, i: 685–688, p. 685.

⁶⁰ J Hughlings Jackson, ‘The Lumleian Lectures on convulsive seizures’, Lancet, 1890, i: 735–738, p. 736.

⁶¹ Pierre Flourens, Recherches expérimentales sur les propriétés et les fonctions du système nerveux, dans les animaux vertébrés, Paris, Crevot, 1824. Translated as ‘Investigations of the properties and the functions of the various parts which compose the cerebral mass’, in Gerhardt von Bonin (trans.), Some papers on the cerebral cortex, Springfield, ILL, Charles C Thomas, 1960, pp. 3–21.

⁶² Robert M Young, Mind, brain and adaptation in the nineteenth century (Oxford, Clarendon, 1970), reprinted Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1990, pp. 70–72.

⁶³ Richard Bright, ‘Cases illustrative of the effects produced when the arteries and brain are diseased’, Guy's Hospital Reports, 1836, 1: 9–40, on p. 36.

⁶⁴ J Hughlings Jackson, ‘Remarks on the disorderly movements of chorea and convulsion, and on localisation’, Med Times Gaz, 1867, ii: 669–670, p. 669.

⁶⁵ J Hughlings Jackson, ‘Notes on the physiology and pathology of the nervous system’, Med Times Gaz, 1868, ii: 177–179, p. 178.

⁶⁶ J Hughlings Jackson, ‘Notes on the physiology and pathology of the nervous system’, Med Times Gaz, 1868, ii: 696.

⁶⁷ L-F Bravais, Recherches sur les symptômes et le traitement de l'épilepsie hémiplégique, Paris, Didot le Jeune, 1827 (thèse de Paris, no. 118).

⁶⁸ Jean-Martin Charcot, Leçons du mardi à la Salpêtrière, Paris, Delahaye & Lecrosnier, 1887, p.15: “Mais dans ces derniers temps, un savant anglais, M. Jackson (de Londres), est revenu sur ce sujet et il a traité la question d'une façon si particulière qu'il m'est arrivé quelquefois d'appeler cette affection l'épilepsie Jacksonienne et le nom lui en est resté…. l'étude de M. Jackson est si importante que véritablement, il méritait bien d'attacher son nom à cette découverte.” And “ce serait plus juste; il est vrai que ce serait un peu long”.

⁶⁹ Charles Bell, Idea for a new anatomy of the brain; submitted for the observations of his friends, printed for private circulation, London, Strahan and Preston, 1811. Reprinted in facsimile in Paul F Cranefield (ed.), The way in and the way out, New York, Futura, 1974. The facsimile retains the pagination of the original pamphlet.

⁷⁰ François Magendie, ‘Expériences sur les fonctions des racines des nerfs rachidiens’, Journal de physiologie expérimentale et pathologique, 1822, 2: 276–279. Reprinted in facsimile in Paul F Cranefield, The way in and the way out, New York, Futura, 1974. The facsimile retains the pagination of the original article.

⁷¹ Marshall Hall, Memoirs on the nervous system, London, Sherwood, Gilbert and Piper, 1837, p. vi.

⁷² Ibid., p. vi.

⁷³ T Laycock, ‘On the reflex function of the brain’, Br Foreign Med Rev, 1845, 19: 298–311.

⁷⁴ Greenblatt, op. cit., note 3 above, pp. 348–349.

⁷⁵ Hughlings Jackson, ‘Loss of speech’, op. cit., note 21 above, p. 454.

⁷⁶ Hughlings Jackson, op. cit., note 27 above, p. 189n.

⁷⁷ Hughlings Jackson, op. cit., note 29 above, 1874, 18: 347–352, on p. 348.

⁷⁸ J Hughlings Jackson, ‘On some implications of dissolution of the nervous system’, Med Press Circular, 1883, 36: 64–66, on p. 66.

⁷⁹ J Hughlings Jackson, ‘Remarks on evolution and dissolution of the nervous system’, J Mental Sci., 1887, 33: 25–48, on p. 40.

⁸⁰ Jonathan Hutchinson, op. cit., note 19 above, pp. 1551–1554, p. 1553.

⁸¹ Hughlings Jackson, op. cit., note 64 above, page 669.

⁸² Hughlings Jackson, op. cit., note 29 above, 1874, 18: 347–352, on p. 348.

⁸³ J Hughlings Jackson, ‘On some implications of dissolution of the nervous system’, Med Press Circular, 1882, 34: 411–414, on p. 412.

⁸⁴ J Hughlings Jackson, ‘On the anatomical and physiological localisation of movements in the brain’, Lancet, 1873, i: 84–85.

⁸⁵ J Hughlings Jackson, ‘On temporary mental disorders after epileptic paroxysms’, West Riding Lunatic Asylum Medical Reports, 1875, 5: 105–129.

⁸⁶ Hughlings Jackson, op. cit., note 83 above.

⁸⁷ Hughlings Jackson, op. cit., note 31 above. See also J Hughlings Jackson, ‘Croonian lectures on the evolution and dissolution of the nervous system. Delivered at the Royal College of Physicians’, Lancet, 1884, i: 555–558, 649–652, 739–744, and J Hughlings Jackson, ‘Croonian lectures on evolution and dissolution of the nervous system. Delivered at the Royal College of Physicians’, Med Times Gaz, 1884, i: 411–413, 445–448, 649–652. The published lectures were, in part, transcribed verbatim by an unknown note-taker, and in part paraphrased.

⁸⁸ Hughlings Jackson, op. cit., note 31 above, p. 591.

⁸⁹ Ibid., p. 591.

⁹⁰ Ibid., p. 662.

⁹¹ Hughlings Jackson, op. cit., note 79 above, p. 37.

⁹² Ibid.

⁹³ Ibid.

⁹⁴ Ibid., pp. 38–39.

⁹⁵ Ibid., p. 38.

⁹⁶ Ibid. See also Thomas Laycock, Mind and brain: or, the correlations of consciousness and organization, with their applications to philosophy, zoology, physiology, mental pathology, and the practice of medicine, Edinburgh, Sutherland and Knox, 1860, p. 183. Laycock comments, “In Germany, the doctrine of Leibniz was almost universally adopted.”

⁹⁷ Hughlings Jackson, op. cit., note 79 above, p. 38.

⁹⁸ Ibid., p. 39.

⁹⁹ Ibid., p. 39.

¹⁰⁰ J Hughlings Jackson, ‘On affections of speech from disease of the brain’, Brain, 1878, 1: 304–330, p. 325.

¹⁰¹ Ibid., footnote on p. 323.

¹⁰² J Hughlings Jackson, ‘Remarks on dissolution of the nervous system, as exemplified by certain post-epileptic conditions’, Med Press Circular, 1881, 31: 329–332, 399–400, 1881, 32: 68–70, 380–382, 399–401, 421–422.

¹⁰³ Ibid., 32: 69.

¹⁰⁴ Hughlings Jackson, op. cit., note 31 above, p. 706.

¹⁰⁵ Hughlings Jackson, op. cit., note 79 above.

¹⁰⁶ Ibid., pp. 39–40.

¹⁰⁷ Hughlings Jackson, op. cit., note 100 above.

¹⁰⁸ Hughlings Jackson, op. cit., note 31 above, p. 661.

¹⁰⁹ Hughlings Jackson, op. cit., note 79 above, p. 40.

¹¹⁰ Ibid., p. 37.

¹¹¹ Hughlings Jackson, ‘On post-epileptic states: a contribution to the comparative study of insanities’, J Mental Sci, 1888, 34: 349–365, on p. 350.

¹¹² Jonathan Hutchinson, op. cit., note 19 above, p. 1553.

¹¹³ ‘The late Dr. Hughlings Jackson. Recollections by Dr. Mercier’, Br Med J, 1912, i: 85–86, on p. 85. Obituary, Br Med J, op. cit., note 20 above, p. 953.

¹¹⁴ Obituary, Br Med J, op. cit., note 20 above, p. 953.

¹¹⁵ Hughlings Jackson, ‘Loss of speech’, op. cit., note 21 above.

¹¹⁶ Ibid, on p. 388.

¹¹⁷ J Hughlings Jackson, ‘Notes on the physiology and pathology of language. Remarks on those cases of disease of the nervous system in which defect of expression is the most striking symptom’, Med Times Gaz, 1866, i: 659–662, p. 660.

¹¹⁸ J Hughlings Jackson, ‘Hemiplegia of the left side, with defect of speech’, Med Times Gaz, 1866, ii: 210.

¹¹⁹ Hughlings Jackson, ‘On some implications of dissolution of the nervous system’, Med Press Circular, 1882, 34: 433–434, on p. 433.

¹²⁰ Ibid., p. 434.

¹²¹ J Hughlings Jackson, ‘On epilepsies and on the after-effects of epileptic discharges (Todd and Robertson's hypothesis)’, West Riding Lunatic Asylum Medical Reports, 1876, 6: 266–309.

¹²² Ibid., p. 290.

¹²³ Hughlings Jackson, op. cit., note 119 above.

¹²⁴ J Hughlings Jackson, ‘An address on ophthalmology in its relation to general medicine’, Br Med J, 1877, i: 575–577, 605–606, 672–674, 703–705, 804–805; J Hughlings Jackson, ‘Ophthalmology and diseases of the nervous system, being the Bowman lecture, delivered Friday, November 13th, 1885, Trans Ophthalmol Soc U.K., 1886, 6: 1–22; J Hughlings Jackson, ‘Presidential address, delivered at the first meeting of the session, October 17th, 1889’, Trans Ophthalmol Soc U.K., 1890, 10: xliv–lix. See also Burton Chance, ‘Short studies on the history of ophthalmology. III. Hughlings Jackson, the neurologic ophthalmologist, with a summary of his works’, Arch Ophthalmol, 1937, 17: 241–289.

¹²⁵ Br Med J, 1877, i: 575–577, 605–606, 672–674, 703–705, 804–805.

¹²⁶ J Hughlings Jackson, ‘An experimental inquiry into the effect of the application of ice to the back of the neck on the retinal circulation’, Med Times Gaz, 1863, ii: 90–91.

¹²⁷ Hughlings Jackson, Br Med J, op. cit., note 125 above, pp. 703–704.

¹²⁸ ‘Obituary’, Br Med J, op. cit., note 20 above.

¹²⁹ Ibid., p. 952.

¹³⁰ Hutchinson, op. cit., note 19 above.

¹³¹ J Hughlings Jackson, Clinical and physiological researches on the nervous system. No. 1. On the localisation of movements in the brain, London, J and A Churchill, 1875, held in the Rockefeller Library, Institute of Neurology, University College London. This item, including the preface, also appears in James Taylor (ed.), Selected writings of John Hughlings Jackson, 2 vols, London, Hodder and Stoughton, 1931–32. Reprinted New York, Basic Books, 1958, vol. 1, p. 52.

¹³² Hughlings Jackson, op. cit., note 121 above, pp. 306–308.

¹³³ J Hughlings Jackson, ‘An address delivered at the opening of the section of pathology, at the annual meeting of the British Medical Association in Worcester, August 1882’, Br Med J, 1882, ii: 305–308, p. 308.

¹³⁴ Ibid., p. 308.

¹³⁵ Hughlings Jackson, op. cit., note 31 above, p. 706.

¹³⁶ William Broadbent, ‘Hughlings Jackson as a pioneer in nervous physiology and pathology’, Brain, 1903, 26: 305–366, pp. 356–366.

¹³⁷ Hughlings Jackson, op. cit., note 131 above.

¹³⁸ Greenblatt, op. cit., note 3 above, pp. 374–376.

¹³⁹ J Hughlings Jackson, T Buzzard, R Brudenell Carter, et al., ‘The medical staff and the management of the National Hospital for the Paralysed and Epileptic, Queen Square’, Lancet, 1900, ii: 351–352.