Hostname: page-component-669899f699-rg895 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-04-25T01:56:31.234Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Subsidiary Distributive Justice, Internal Embeddedness, and Subsidiary Initiative

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 April 2025

David H. Weng Open the ORCID record for David H. Weng [Opens in a new window]  and
Hsiang-Lin Cheng Open the ORCID record for Hsiang-Lin Cheng [Opens in a new window]
David H. Weng
Affiliation:
California State University, Fullerton, USA;
Hsiang-Lin Cheng*
Affiliation:
National Chung Cheng University, Taiwan
*
Corresponding author: Hsiang-Lin Cheng ([email protected])
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

While prior research has suggested that justice matters for multinational enterprises (MNEs), whether distributive justice affects a subsidiary's tendency to show initiative remains unclear. In this study, we postulate that the extent to which a subsidiary manager regards the sharing of profit and rewards from the headquarters as fair has a curvilinear relationship with the subsidiary's inclination to take initiative. Specifically, although a low to moderate level of distributive justice can motivate subsidiaries to show initiative, this stimulating effect will diminish when distributive justice goes beyond a certain threshold. We furthermore contend that this non-monotonic effect will differ between low internally embedded subsidiaries and high embedded subsidiaries. Results based on a sample of subsidiaries owned by MNEs in Taiwan support our arguments. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.

摘要

摘要

虽然过去的研究表明公正性对于多国企业的管理很重要，但是结果公正对于子公司表现主动行为的影响尚不明确。本研究假设，子公司的管理者对于公司总部在利润分享和奖励分发上是否公平与他们是否会出现工作主动性之间存在非线性关系。具体而言，结果公平从低转向中等程度时，子公司的主动行为会逐渐增加，但在超过一定临界值以后，起作用就会逐步减弱。进一步，这种倒U型关系的强弱受到子公司的嵌入程度影响。台湾跨国企业子公司样本的实证研究支持了上述假设。

Keywords

distributive justiceinternal embeddednesssubsidiary initiative分配公平子公司主導行為多國企業內部鑲嵌
Type
Article
Information
Management and Organization Review , First View , pp. 1 - 24
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2025. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of International Association for Chinese Management Research

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

Footnotes

†

The two authors contributed equally to this project.

References

Abdi, M., & Aulakh, P. S. 2012. Do country-level institutional frameworks and interfirm governance arrangements substitute or complement in international business relationships. Journal of International Business Studies, 43(5): 477–497.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ambos, T. C., Andersson, U., & Birkinshaw, J. 2010. What are the consequences of initiative-taking in multinational subsidiaries? Journal of International Business Studies, 41(6): 1099–1118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ambos, T. C., Fuchs, S. H., & Zimmermann, A. 2020. Managing interrelated tensions in headquarters-subsidiary relationships: The case of a multinational hybrid organization. Journal of International Business Studies, 51(6): 906–932.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, E., & Jap, S. D. 2005. The dark side of close relationships. Sloan Management Review, 46(3): 75–82.Google Scholar
Ariño, A., & Ring, P. S. 2010. The role of fairness in alliance formation. Strategic Management Journal, 31(10): 1054–1087.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Asmussen, C. G., Foss, N. J., & Nell, P. C. 2019. The role of procedural justice for global strategy and subsidiary initiatives. Global Strategy Journal, 9(4): 527–554.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bamberger, P., Belogolovsky, E., & Chen, G. 2017. The dark side of transparency: How and when pay administration practices affect employee helping. Journal of Applied Psychology, 102(4): 658–671.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bell, R. G., Filatotchev, I., & Rasheed, A. A. 2012. The liability of foreignness in capital markets: Sources and remedies. Journal of International Business Studies, 43(2): 107–122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beugelsdijk, S., & Jindra, B. 2018. Product innovation and decision-making autonomy in subsidiaries of multinational companies. Journal of World Business, 53(4): 529–539.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Birkinshaw, J., & Ridderstrale, J. 1999. Fighting the corporate immune system: A process study of subsidiary initiatives in multinational corporations. International Business Review, 8(2): 149–180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Birkinshaw, J., Hood, N., & Jonsson, S. 1998. Building firm-specific advantages in multinational corporations: The role of subsidiary initiative. Strategic Management Journal, 19(3): 221–241.3.0.CO;2-P>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boone, C., Lokshin, B., Guenter, H., & Belderbos, R. 2019. Top management team nationality diversity, corporate entrepreneurship, and innovation in multinational firms. Strategic Management Journal, 40(2): 277–302.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bouquet, C., & Birkinshaw, J. 2008. Weight versus voice: How foreign subsidiaries gain attention from corporate headquarters. Academy of Management Journal, 51(3): 577–601.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brockner, J., Wiesenfeld, B. M., & Diekmann, K. A. 2009. Towards a “fairer” conception of process fairness: Why, when and how more may not always be better than less. Academy of Management Annals, 3(1): 183–216.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Camps, J., Graso, M., & Brebels, L. 2022. When organizational justice enactment is a zero-sum game: A trade-offs and self-concept maintenance perspective. Academy of Management Perspectives, 36(1): 30–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chang, S.-J., van Witteloostuijn, A., & Eden, L. 2010. From the editors: Common method variance in international business research. Journal of International Business Studies, 41(2): 178–184.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chatterjee, A., & Hambrick, D. C. 2007. It's all about me: Narcissistic chief executive officers and their effects on company strategy and performance. Administrative Science Quarterly, 52(3): 351–386.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, S.-F., & Hennart, J.-F. 2002. Japanese investors’ choice of joint ventures versus wholly-owned subsidiaries in the U.S.: The role of market barriers and firm capabilities. Journal of International Business Studies, 33(1): 1–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cheng, H.-L., & Huang, M.-C. 2021. Does dual embeddedness matter? Mechanisms and patterns of subsidiary ambidexterity that links a subsidiary's dual embeddedness with its learning strategy. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 38(4): 1431–1465.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ciabuschi, F., Dellestrand, H., & Martin, O. M. 2011. Internal embeddedness, headquarters involvement, and innovation importance in multinational enterprises. Journal of Management Studies, 48(7): 1612–1639.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen-Charash, Y., & Spector, P. E. 2001. The role of justice in organizations: A meta-analysis. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 86(2): 278–321.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Colquitt, J. A., & Zipay, K. P. 2015. Justice, fairness, and employee reactions. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 2(1): 75–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Colquitt, J. A., Scott, B. A., Judge, T. A., & Shaw, J. C. 2006. Justice and personality: Using integrative theories to derive moderators of justice effects. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 100(1): 110–127.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Colquitt, J. A., Colon, D. E., Wesson, M. J., Porter, C. O. L. H., & Ng, K. Y. 2001. Justice at the millennium: A meta-analytic review of 25 years of organizational justice research. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(3): 425–445.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cooper, C. L., Dyck, B., & Frohlich, N. 1992. Improving the effectiveness of gainsharing: The role of fairness and participation. Administrative Science Quarterly, 37(3): 471–490.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cowherd, D. M., & Levine, D. I. 1992. Product quality and pay equity between lower-level employees and top management: An investigation of distributive justice theory. Administrative Science Quarterly, 37(2): 302–320.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cropanzano, R., & Mitchell, M. S. 2005. Social exchange theory: An interdisciplinary review. Journal of Management, 31(6): 874–900.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cyert, R. M., & March, J. G. 1963. A behavioral theory of the firm. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall/Pearson Education.Google Scholar
de Boer, E. M., Bakker, A. B., Syroit, J. E., & Schaufeli, W. B. 2002. Unfairness at work as a predictor of absenteeism. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23(2): 181–197.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. 1999. A meta-analytic review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 125(6): 627–668.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Cremer, D., van Dijke, M., Schminke, M., De Schutter, L., Stouten, J., & Chen, G. 2018. The trickle-down effects of perceived trustworthiness on subordinate performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 103(12): 1335–1357.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Delany, E. 2000. Strategic development of the multinational subsidiary through subsidiary initiative-taking. Long Range Planning, 33(2): 220–244.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dellestrand, H., & Kappen, P. 2012. The effects of spatial and contextual factors on headquarters resource allocation to MNE subsidiaries. Journal of International Business Studies, 43(3): 219–243.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dikova, D., Sahib, P. R., & van Witteloostuijn, A. 2010. Cross-border acquisition abandonment and completion: The effect of institutional difference and organizational learning in the international business service industry, 1981-2001. Journal of International Business Studies, 41(2): 223–245.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ferraris, A. 2014. Rethinking the literature on “multiple embeddedness” and subsidiary-specific advantages. Multinational Business Review, 22(1): 15–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ferraris, A., Bogers, M. L. A. M., & Bresciani, S. 2020. Subsidiary innovation performance: Balancing external knowledge sources and internal embeddedness. Journal of International Management, 26(4): 100794.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ferraris, A., Degbey, W. Y., Singh, S. K., Bresciani, S., Castellano, S., Fiano, F., & Couturier, J. 2022. Microfoundations of strategic agility in emerging markets: Empirical evidence of Italian MNEs in India. Journal of World Business, 57(2): 101272.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Festinger, L. 1954. A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7(2): 117–140.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fey, C. F., & Furu, P. 2008. Top management incentive compensation and knowledge sharing in multinational corporations. Strategic Management Journal, 29(12): 1301–1323.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frey, B. S., & Jegen, R. 2001. Motivation crowding theory. Journal of Economic Surveys, 15(5): 589–611.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Georgakakis, D., Wedell-Wedellsborg, M. E., Vallone, T., & Greve, P. 2023. Strategic leaders in multinational enterprises: A role-specific microfoundational view and research agenda. Journal of International Business Studies, 54(3): 514–537.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grewal, R., Kumar, A., Mallapragada, G., & Saini, A. 2013. Marketing channels in foreign markets: Control mechanisms and the moderating role of multinational corporation headquarters-subsidiary relationship. Journal of Marketing Research, 50(3): 378–398.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haans, R. F. J., Pieters, C., & He, Z.-L. 2016. Thinking about U: Theorizing and testing U- and U-shaped relationships in strategy research. Strategic Management Journal, 37(7): 1177–1195.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Halaszovich, T. F., & Lundan, S. M. 2016. The moderating role of local embeddedness on the performance of foreign and domestic firms in emerging markets. International Business Review, 25(5): 1136–1148.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harzing, A.-W. 2000. Cross-national industrial mail surveys: Why do response rates differ between countries? Industrial Marketing Management, 29(3): 243–254.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herman, B. J. 1994. The Nadaraya-Watson kernel regression function estimator in topics. In J. H. Bierens (Ed.), Advanced econometrics: 212–247. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hill, E. T., Matta, F. K., & Mitchell, M. S. 2021. Seeing the glass as half full or half empty: The role of affect-induced optimistic and pessimistic states on justice perception and outcomes. Academy of Management Journal, 64(4): 1265–1287.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hobdari, B., Gammeltoft, P., Li, J., & Meyer, K. 2017. The home country of the MNE: The case of emerging economy firms. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 34(1): 1–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hu, S., Gu, Q., & Xia, J. 2022. Problemistic search of the embeddedness firm: The joint effects of performance feedback and network positions on venture capital firms’ risk taking. Organization Science, 33(5): 1889–1908.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hu, C., Li, J., & Yun, K. W. 2023. Re-examining foreign subsidiary survival in a transition economy: Impact of market identity overlap and conflict. Journal of World Business, 58(3): 101432.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Husted, B. W., & Folger, R. 2004. Fairness and transaction costs: The contribution of organizational justice theory to an integrative model of economic organization. Organization Science, 15(6): 719–729.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ionescu, A.-F., & Iliescu, D. 2021. LMX, organizational justice and performance: Curvilinear relationships. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 36(2): 197–211.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Isaac, V. R., Borini, F. M., Razig, M. M., & Benito, G. R. G. 2019. From local to global innovation: The role of subsidiaries’ external relational embeddedness in an emerging market. International Business Review, 28(4): 638–646.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Iurkov, V., & Benito, G. R. G. 2018. Domestic alliance networks and regional strategies of MNEs: A structural embeddedness perspective. Journal of International Business Studies, 49(8): 1033–1059.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Javernick-Will, A. 2013. Local embeddedness and knowledge management strategies for project-based multi-national firms. Engineering Management Journal, 25(3): 16–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jean, R.-J., Sinkovics, R. R., & Cavusgil, S. T. 2010. Enhancing international customer-supplier relationships through IT resources: A study of Taiwanese electronics suppliers. Journal of International Business Studies, 41(7): 1218–1239.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jerald, G. 1993. Stealing in the name of justice: Informational and international moderators of theft reactions to underpayment inequity. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 54(1): 81–103.Google Scholar
Kim, C. W., & Mauborgne, R. 1996. Procedural justice and managers’ in-role and extra-role behavior: The case of the multinational. Management Science, 42(4): 499–515.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, C. W., & Mauborgne, R. 1998. Procedural justice, strategic decision making, and the knowledge economy. Strategic Management Journal, 19(4): 323–338.Google Scholar
Leclercq, T., Poncin, I., Hammedi, W., Kullak, A., & Hollebek, L. D. 2020. When gamification backfires: The impact of perceived justice on online community contributions. Journal of Marketing Management, 36(5–6): 550–577.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ling, Y., Floyd, S. W., & Baldridge, D. C. 2005. Toward a model of issue-selling by subsidiary managers in multinational organizations. Journal of International Business Studies, 36(6): 637–654.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liu, Y., Huang, Y., Luo, Y., & Zhao, Y. 2012. How does justice matter in achieving buyer–supplier relationship performance? Journal of Operations Research, 30(5): 355–367.Google Scholar
Long, C. P., Bendersky, C., & Morrill, C. 2011. Fairness monitoring: Linking managerial controls and fairness judgements in organizations. Academy of Management Journal, 54(5): 1045–1068.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luo, Y. 2005. How important are shared perceptions of procedural justice in cooperative alliances? Academy of Management Journal, 48(4): 695–709.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luo, Y. 2007. The independent and interactive roles of procedural, distributive, and interactional justice in strategic alliances. Academy of Management Journal, 50(3): 644–664.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luo, Y. 2009. From gain–sharing to gain generation: The quest for distributive justice in international joint ventures. Journal of International Management, 15(4): 343–356.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marano, M., & Kostova, T. 2016. Unpacking the institutional complexity in adoption of CSR practices in multinational enterprises. Journal of Management Studies, 53(1): 28–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meyer, K. E., Mudambi, R., & Narula, R. 2011. Multinational enterprises and local contexts: The opportunities and challenges of multiple embeddedness. Journal of Management Studies, 48(2): 235–252.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mezias, J. M. 2002. Identifying liabilities of foreignness and strategies to minimize their effects: The case of labor lawsuit judgements in the United States. Strategic Management Journal, 23(3): 229–244.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Monteiro, L. F. 2015. Selective attention and the initiation of the global knowledge-sourcing process in multinational corporations. Journal of International Business Studies, 46(5): 505–527.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Monteiro, L. F., Arvidsson, N., & Birkinshaw, J. 2008. Knowledge flows within multinational corporations: Explaining subsidiary isolation and its performance implications. Organization Science, 19(1): 90–107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morrison, E. W., & Phelps, C. C. 1999. Taking charge at work: Extrarole efforts to initiate workplace change. Academy of Management Journal, 42(4): 403–419.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Noordhoff, C. S., Kyriakopoulos, K., Moorman, C., Pauwels, P., & Dellaert, B. G. C. 2011. The bright side and dark side of embedded ties in business-to-business innovation. Journal of Marketing, 75(5): 34–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O'Brien, D., Scott, S., Andersson, U., Ambos, T., & Fu, N. 2019. The microfoundations of subsidiary initiatives: How subsidiary manager activities unlock entrepreneurship. Global Strategy Journal, 9(1): 66–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O'Donnell, S. W. 2000. Managing foreign subsidiaries: Agents of headquarters, or an interdependent network? Strategic Management Journal, 21(5): 525–548.3.0.CO;2-Q>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oehmichen, J., & Puck, J. 2016. Embeddedness, ownership mode and dynamics, and the performance of MNE subsidiaries. Journal of International Management, 22(1): 17–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oh, C. H. 2009. The international scale and scope of European multinationals. European Management Journal, 27(5): 336–343.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parker, S. K., & Collins, C. G. 2010. Taking stock: Integrating and differentiating multiple proactive behaviors. Journal of Management, 36(3): 633–662.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Phene, A., & Almeida, P. 2008. Innovation in multinational subsidiaries: The role of knowledge assimilation and subsidiary capabilities. Journal of International Business Studies, 39(5): 901–919.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., & Podsakoff, N. P. 2012. Sources of methods bias in social science research and recommendation on how to control it. Annual Review of Psychology, 63: 539–569.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reiche, B. S., Kraimer, M. L., & Harzing, A.-W. 2011. Why do international assignees stay? An organizational embeddedness perspective. Journal of International Business Studies, 42(4): 521–544.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rugman, A. M., & Verbeke, A. 2001. Subsidiary-specific advantages in multinational enterprises. Strategic Management Journal, 22(3): 237–250.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schleimer, S. C., Coote, L. M., & Riege, A. 2014. Headquarters to subsidiary transfer effects on marketing strategy exploitation. Journal of Business Research, 67(3): 307–315.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmid, S., Dzedek, L. R., & Lehrer, M. 2014. From rocking the boat to wagging the dog: A literature review of subsidiary initiative research and integrative framework. Journal of International Management, 20(2): 201–218.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmitt, M., Baumert, A., Gollwitzer, M., & Maes, J. 2010. The justice sensitivity inventory: Factorial validity, location in the personality facet space, demographic pattern, and normative data. Social Justice Research, 23(2–3): 211–238.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schotter, A., & Beamish, P. W. 2011. Performance effects of MNC headquarters–subsidiary conflict and the role of boundary spanners: the case of headquarter initiative rejection. Journal of International Management, 17(3): 243–259.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shirodkar, V., & Konara, P. 2017. Institutional distance and foreign subsidiary performance in emerging markets: Moderating effects of ownership strategy and host-country experience. Management International Review, 57(2): 179–207.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sirén, C., Patel, P. C., Örtqvist, D., & Wincent, J. 2018. CEO burnout, managerial discretion, and firm performance: The role of CEO locus of control, structural power, and organizational factors. Long Range Planning, 51(6): 953–971.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Strutzenberger, A., & Ambos, T. C. 2014. Unravelling the subsidiary initiative process: A multilevel approach. International Journal of Management Reviews, 16(3): 314–339.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Suls, J., & Wheeler, L. 2012. Social comparison theory. In Van Lange, P. A. M., Kruglanski, A. W., & Higgins, E. T. (Eds.), Handbook of theories of social psychology: 460–482. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sumelius, J., Björkman, I., Ehrnrooth, M., Mäkelä, K., & Smale, A. 2014. What determines employee perceptions of HRM process features? The case of performance appraisal in MNC subsidiaries. Human Resource Management, 53(4): 569–592.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tavares, T. A., & Young, S. 2006. Sourcing patterns of foreign-owned multinational subsidiaries in Europe. Regional Studies, 40(6): 583–600.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verbeke, A., Bachor, V., & Nguyen, B. 2013. Procedural justice, not absorptive capacity, matters in multinational enterprise ICT transfers. Management International Review, 53(4): 535–554.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Villena, V. H., Revilla, E., & Choi, T. Y. 2011. The dark side of buyer-supplier relationships: A social capital perspective. Journal of Operations Management, 29(6): 561–576.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wang, S. L., Luo, Y., Lu, X., Sun, J., & Maksimov, V. 2014. Autonomy delegation to foreign subsidiaries: An enabling mechanism for emerging-market multinationals. Journal of International Business Studies, 45(2): 111–130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wang, L., Song, F., & Zhong, C.-B. 2022. High compensation and unethical reciprocity. Journal of Management, 48(8): 2223–2254.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weng, D. H., & Cheng, H.-L. 2019. The more, the merrier? How a subsidiary's organizational identification with the MNE affects its initiative. Long Range Planning, 52(4): 101860.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weng, D. H., & Cheng, H.-L. 2023. Does fairness narrow the gap? Effect of procedural justice on MNE attention disparity. Global Strategy Journal, 13(1): 147–175.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wong, Y.-T., Ngo, H.-Y., & Wong, C.-S. 2006. Perceived organizational justice, trust, and OCB: A study of Chinese workers in joint ventures and state-owned enterprises. Journal of World Business, 41(4): 344–355.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Xu, D., Pan, Y., & Beamish, P. W. 2004. The effect of regulative and normative distances on MNE ownership and expatriate strategies. Management International Review, 44(3): 285–307.Google Scholar
Zaheer, S. 1995. Overcoming the liability of foreignness. Academy of Management Journal, 38(2): 341–363.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zapata, C. P., Carton, A. M., & Liu, J. T. 2016. When justice promotes injustice: Why minority leaders experience bias when they adhere to interpersonal justice rules. Academy of Management Journal, 59(4): 1150–1173.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhang, J., & Gu, Q. 2021. Turning a curse into a blessing: Contingent effects of geographic distance on startup-VC partnership performance. Journal of Business Venturing, 36(4): 103108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar