Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-ndw9j Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-05T03:57:42.702Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Parochialism and Implications for Chinese Firms’ Globalization

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 May 2019

Jing Betty Feng ,
Leigh Anne Liu  and
Chunyan Jiang
Jing Betty Feng*
Affiliation:
Farmingdale State College (SUNY), USA
Leigh Anne Liu
Affiliation:
Georgia State University, USA
Chunyan Jiang
Affiliation:
Nanjing University, China
*
Corresponding author: Jing Betty Feng ([email protected])
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

We explore the meaning of parochialism (xiao nong yi shi, 小农意识) to explain certain paradoxical Chinese managerial behaviors. We discuss how cultural, political, and economic traditions in China formed a salient context to cultivate parochialism. Qualitative data from Chinese and American managers reveal that the conceptual framework of parochialism includes a cognitive dimension of closed-mindedness, a behavioral dimension of self-protection, and a relational dimension of in-group focused social relationship. Parochialism hampers effective globalization of Chinese firms because it negatively impacts key facets of organizational culture: employee development, communication, customer orientation, social responsibility, strategic planning, and innovation. The study offers theoretical and practical implications for Chinese management research and the development of global competence.

摘要

本文探讨小农意识（parochialism）的意涵，并用小农意识来解释中国管理中的某些矛盾行为。我们探讨了形成小农意识的文化、政治和经济传统背景。来自中国和美国管理者的访谈数据表明，小农意识的概念框架包括封闭思想的认知维度，自我保护的行为维度，以及内部导向的关系维度。小农意识对中国企业组织文化包括员工发展、沟通、客户导向、社会责任、战略规划和创新几个关键方面产生了负面影响，并阻碍中国企业进行有效的全球化。本研究为中国管理研究和企业发展全球性能力提供了理论和实践意义。

Аннотация

Мы исследуем значение местничества (xiao nong yi shi, 小农意识) для того, чтобы объяснить некоторые парадоксальные модели поведения в сфере управления в                        Китае. Мы обсуждаем, каким образом культурные, политические и экономические традиции в Китае сформировали особый контекст для культивирования местничества. Качественные данные, полученные на основе опроса китайских и американских менеджеров, показывают, что концептуальная модель местничества включает в себя когнитивный аспект ограниченности мышления, поведенческий аспект самосохранения и социальный аспект взаимоотношений внутри группы. Местничество является препятствием для эффективной глобализации китайских фирм, потому что оно отрицательно влияет на ключевые аспекты организационной культуры: развитие потенциала сотрудников, обмен информацией, ориентацию на клиента, социальную ответственность, стратегическое планирование и инновации. В данной работе делаются теоретические и практические выводы, которые имеют значение для китайских исследований в области управления и развития глобальной компетенции.

Resumen

Exploramos el significado de parroquialismo (xiao nong yi shi, 小农意识) para explicar ciertos comportamientos gerenciales chinos paradójicos. Discutimos cómo las tradiciones culturales, políticas y económicas en China formaron un contexto destacado para cultivar parroquialismo. Datos cualitativos de gerentes chinos y americanos revelan que el marco conceptual de parroquialismo incluye una dimensión cognitiva de mentalidad cerrada, una dimensión comportamental de auto-protección, y una dimensional relacional enfocada las relaciones sociales dentro del grupo. El parroquialismo obstaculiza la globalización efectiva de las empresas chinas dado sus impactos negativas en la aspectos clave de la cultura organizacional: desarrollo de empleados, comunicación, orientación al consumidor, responsabilidad social, planeación estratégica, e innovación. Este estudio ofrece implicaciones teóricas y prácticas para la investigación gerencial china y en el desarrollo de competencias globales.

Keywords

Chinese management theoryChinese managerial culturemanagerial cognitionparochialism中国管理理论中国管理文化管理认知小农意识китайская теория управлениякитайская управленческая культурасознание управленцевместничествоteoría gerencia chinacultura gerencial chinacognición gerencialparroquialismo
Type
Article
Information
Management and Organization Review , Volume 15 , Issue 4 , December 2019 , pp. 705 - 736
Copyright
Copyright © 2019 The International Association for Chinese Management Research 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

Accepted by: Senior Editor Zhi-Xue Zhang

References

REFERENCES

Alicke, M. D., & Sedikides, C. 2009. Self-enhancement and self-protection: What they are and what they do. European Review of Social Psychology, 20(1): 1–48.10.1080/10463280802613866Google Scholar
Altemeyer, B. 1981. Right-wing authoritarianism. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press.Google Scholar
Barr, P. S., Stimpert, J. L., & Huff, A. S. 1992. Cognitive change, strategic action, and organizational renewal. Strategic Management Journal, 13(S1): 15–36.10.1002/smj.4250131004Google Scholar
Bowell, A. 2011. Returning to Britain's island mentality. The Huffington Post. https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/alex-bowell/britains-island-mentality_b_1080008.htmlGoogle Scholar
Caron, J. 2014. Conservatives’ insular mindset doesn't fit today's global reality. The Japan Times. Google Scholar
Charmaz, K. 2006. Constructing grounding theory - A practical guide through qualitative analysis. London, UK: Sage Publications, Inc.Google Scholar
Chen, C. C., Chen, Y.-R., & Xin, K. 2004. Guanxi practices and trust in management: A procedural justice perspective. Organization Science, 15(2): 200–209.10.1287/orsc.1030.0047Google Scholar
Chen, C. C., Chen, X. P., & Huang, S. S. 2013. Guanxi and social network research: Review and future directions. Management and Organization Review, 9(1): 167–207.Google Scholar
Chen, C. C., Friedman, R., & Mcallister, D. J. 2017. Seeing and studying China: Leveraging phenomenon-based research in China for theory advancement. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 143: 1–7.10.1016/j.obhdp.2017.09.008Google Scholar
Chen, M.-J. 2001. Inside Chinese business: A guide for managers worldwide. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School.Google Scholar
Chen, M.-J. 2002. Transcending paradox: The Chinese ‘middle way’ perspective. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 19(2–3): 179–199.10.1023/A:1016235517735Google Scholar
Chen, M.-J., 2014. Becoming ambicultural: A personal quest, and aspiration for organizations. Academy of Management Review, 39(2): 119–137.10.5465/amr.2013.0493Google Scholar
Chen, M.-J., & Miller, D. 2010. West meets East: Toward an ambicultural approach to management. The Academy of Management Perspectives, 24(4): 17–24.10.5465/amp.2010.24.4.3651479.aGoogle Scholar
Chen, M.-J., & Miller, D. 2011. The relational perspective as a business mindset: Managerial implications for East and West. The Academy of Management Perspectives, 25(3): 6–18.Google Scholar
Chen, X.-P., & Chen, C. C. 2004. On the intricacies of the Chinese guanxi: A process model of guanxi development. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 21(3): 305–324.Google Scholar
Cheung, F. M., Cheung, S. F., Leung, K., Ward, C., & Leong, F. 2003. The English version of the Chinese personality assessment inventory. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 34(4): 433–452.10.1177/0022022103034004004Google Scholar
Cheung, F. M., Leung, K., Fan, R., Song, W.-Z., Zhang, J.-X., & Zhang, J. P. 1996. Development of the Chinese personality assessment inventory (CPAI). Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 27(2): 181–199.Google Scholar
Child, J., & Marinova, S. 2014. The role of contextual combinations in the globalization of Chinese firms. Management and Organization Review, 10(3): 347–371.Google Scholar
Chiu, C.-Y., Wan, C., Cheng, S. Y., Kim, Y.-H., & Yang, Y. J. 2011. Cultural perspectives on self-enhancement and self-protection. In Alicke, M. D. & Sedikides, C. (Eds.), Handbook of self-enhancement and self-protection: 425–451. New York: The Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Cho, J. Y., & Lee, E.-H. 2014. Reducing confusion about grounded theory and qualitative content analysis: Similarities and differences. The Qualitative Report, 19(32): 1–20.Google Scholar
Corley, K. G., & Gioia, D. A. 2004. Identity ambiguity and change in the wake of a corporate spin-off. Administrative Science Quarterly, 49(2): 173–208.Google Scholar
Cui, Z., Liang, X., & Lu, X. 2014. Prize or price? Corporate social responsibility commitment and sales performance in the Chinese private sector. Management and Organization Review, 11(1): 25–44.Google Scholar
Deng, X., & Li, Q. 2005. 民营中小企业成长的瓶颈－－兼对小农意识的批判 (The bottleneck of the growth of private small and medium – sized enterprises – criticism on Xiao Nong Yi Shi). Technoeconomics & Management Research, 6: 50–51.Google Scholar
Dietz, M. C., Orr, G., & Xing, J. 2008. How Chinese companies can succeed abroad. McKinsey Quarterly, 3: 1–9.Google Scholar
Dimaggio, P. J., & Powell, W. W. 1983. The iron cage revisited: Institutional isomorphism and collective rationality in organizational fields. American Sociological Review, 48(2): 147–160.Google Scholar
Egri, C. P., & Ralston, D. A. 2004. Generation cohorts and personal values: A comparison of China and the United States. Organization science, 15(2): 210–220.Google Scholar
Eisenhardt, K. M. 1989. Building theories from case study research. Academy of Management Review, 14(4): 532–550.Google Scholar
Fairbank, J. K. 1979. The United States and China. Boston, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Farh, J.-L., Earley, P. C., & Lin, S.-C. 1997. Impetus for action: A cultural analysis of justice and organizational citizenship behavior in Chinese society. Admistrative Science Quarterly, 42(3): 421–444.Google Scholar
Faure, G. O., & Fang, T. 2008. Changing Chinese values: Keeping up with paradoxes. International Business Review, 17(2): 194–207.Google Scholar
Fei, X., Hamilton, G. G., & Wang, Z. 1992. From the soil, the foundations of Chinese society: A translation of Fei Xiaotong's Xiangtu Zhongguo, with an introduction and epilogue. Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Feng, J. B., Liu, L. A., & Friedman, R. 2015. Cross-Cultural adaptation to functional fitness: Evidence from Chinese Firms Operating in the United States. Paper presented to the 2015 Academy of Management Meeting: 11373.Google Scholar
Firth, M., Rui, O. M., & Wu, W. 2011. Cooking the books: Recipes and costs of falsified financial statements in China. Journal of Corporate Finance, 17(2): 371–390.Google Scholar
Fischer, R. 2012. Locating Chinese work behavior in a global perspective. In Huang, X. & Bond, M. H. (Eds.), The handbook of Chinese organizational behavior: Integrating theory, research, and practice: 48–62. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited.Google Scholar
Gelfand, M. J., Raver, J. L., Nishii, L., Leslie, L. M., Lun, J., & Lim, B. C. 2011. Differences between tight and loose cultures: A 33-nation study. Science, 332(6033): 1100–1104.Google Scholar
Gerth, K. 2010. As China goes, so goes the world: How Chinese consumers are transforming everything, New York: Hill and Wang.Google Scholar
Gioia, D. A., Corley, K. G., & Hamilton, A. L. 2013. Seeking qualitative rigor in inductive research: Notes on the Gioia methodology. Organizational Research Methods, 16(15): 15–31.Google Scholar
Graafland, J., & Zhang, L. 2014. Corporate social responsibility in China: Implementation and challenges. Business Ethics: A European Review, 23(1): 34–49.10.1111/beer.12036Google Scholar
Hepper, E. G., Sedikides, C., & Cai, H. 2013. Self-enhancement and self-protection strategies in China: Cultural expressions of a fundamental human motive. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 44(1): 5–23.Google Scholar
Ho, D. Y.-F. 1976. On the concept of face. American Journal of Sociology, 81(4): 867–884.Google Scholar
Hofstede, G. 2001. Culture's consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations: Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.Google Scholar
Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. 2010. Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind: London, UK: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Hong, Y.-Y., & Cheon, B. K. 2017. How does culture matter in the face of globalization? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 12(5): 810–823.Google Scholar
House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P. W., & Gupta, V. 2004. Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies: Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
Huang, X., & Bond, M. H. 2012. Why we need this edited book now! In Huang, X. & Bond, M. H. (Eds.), Handbook of Chinese organizational behavior: Integrating theory, research and practice: 3–10. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing.Google Scholar
Huff, A. S. 1990. Mapping strategic thought. New York: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Huff, L., & Kelley, L. 2003. Levels of organizational trust in individualist versus collectivist societies: A seven-nation study. Organization Science, 14(1): 81–90.10.1287/orsc.14.1.81.12807Google Scholar
Humborstad, S. I. W., Humborstad, B., Whitfield, R., & Perry, C. 2008. Implementation of empowerment in Chinese high power-distance organizations. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 19(7): 1349–1364.Google Scholar
Hunt, M. F. Jr, & Miller, G. R. 1968. Open-and closed-mindedness, belief-discrepant communication behvior, and tolerance for cognitive inconsistency. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 8(1): 35–7.Google Scholar
Hutchings, K., Zhu, C. J., Cooper, B. K., Zhang, Y., & Shao, S. 2009. Perceptions of the effectiveness of training and development of ‘grey-collar'workers in the People's Republic of China. Human Resource Development International, 12(3): 279–296.Google Scholar
Hwang, K.-K. 1987. Face and favor: The Chinese power game. American Journal of Sociology, 92(4): 944–974.Google Scholar
Jost, J. T., Glaser, J., Kruglanski, A. W., & Sulloway, F. J. 2003. Political conservatism as motivated social cognition. Psychological Bulletin, 129(3): 339–375.Google Scholar
Jost, J. T., Napier, J. L., Thorisdottir, H., Gosling, S. D., Palfai, T. P., & Ostafin, B. 2007. Are needs to manage uncertainty and threat associated with political conservatism or ideological extremity? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33(7): 989–1007.Google Scholar
Kruglanski, A. W. 2013. The psychology of closed mindedness. New York: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Lalwani, A. K., Shavitt, S., & Johnson, T. 2006. What is the relation between cultural orientation and socially desirable responding. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(1): 165–178.Google Scholar
Lee, D. Y., & Dawes, P. L. 2005. Guanxi, trust, and long-term orientation in Chinese business markets. Journal of International Marketing, 13(2): 28–56.Google Scholar
Leung, K. 2008. Chinese culture, modernization, and international business. International Business Review, 17(2): 184–187.10.1016/j.ibusrev.2008.02.009Google Scholar
Leung, K. 2012a. Indigenous Chinese management research: Like it or not, we need it. Management and Organization Review, 8(1): 1–5.10.1111/j.1740-8784.2012.00288.xGoogle Scholar
Leung, K. 2012b. Theorizing about Chinese organizational behavior: The role of cultural and social forces. In Huang, X. & Bond, M. H. (Eds.), Handbook of Chinese organizational behavior: Integrating theory, research and practice. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing.Google Scholar
Leung, K. 2014. Globalization of Chinese firms: What happens to culture. Management and Organization Review, 10(3): 391–397.Google Scholar
Leung, K., & Bond, M. H. 2004. Social axioms: A model for social beliefs in multicultural perspective. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 36: 119–197.Google Scholar
Leung, K., Bond, M. H., Carrasquel, S. R. D., Muñoz, C., Hernández, M., Murakami, F., Yamaguchi, S., Bierbrauer, G., & Singelis, T. M. 2002. Social axioms: The search for universal dimensions of general beliefs about how the world functions. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 33(3): 286–302.Google Scholar
Levy, O., Beechler, S., Taylor, S., & Boyacigiller., N. A. 2007. What we talk about when we talk about ‘global mindset’: Managerial cognition in multinational corporations. Journal of International Business Studies, 38(2): 231–258.Google Scholar
Li, P. P. 2013. Speech by Ruimin Zhang, CEO of Haier, at AOM. International Association for Chinese Management Research, Quarterly Newsletter, 9(3): 9–10.Google Scholar
Li, P. P., Leung, K., Chen, C. C., & Luo, J. D. 2012. Indigenous research on Chinese management: What and how. Management and Organization Review, 8(1): 7–24.Google Scholar
Liang, S. M. 1987. 中国文化要义 (The essence of Chinese culture), Hong Kong: Joint Publishing (HK) Co., LtdGoogle Scholar
Lin, T. W. 2004. Corporate governance in China: Recent developments, key problems and solutions. Journal of Accounting and Corporate Governance, 1: 1–23.Google Scholar
Liu, D. 2013. A 股的 “异化”: 条条大路通地产 (‘Alienation’ of A share market: all the way through real estate). China Economic Weekly, 23: 32–36.Google Scholar
Liu, L. A., Friedman, R. A., Barry, B., Gelfand, M. J., & Zhang, Z.-X. 2012. The dynamics of consensus building in intracultural and intercultural negotiations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 57(2): 269–304.Google Scholar
Liu, L. A., Friedman, R. A., & Chi, S. C. 2005. Ren Qing'versus the ‘Big Five’: The role of culturally sensitive measures of individual difference in distributive negotiations. Management and Organization Review, 1(2): 225–247.Google Scholar
Liu, W., Friedman, R. A., & Hong, Y.-Y. 2012. Culture and accountability in negotiation: Recognizing the importance of in-group relations. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 117(1): 221–234.Google Scholar
Liu, X. 2003. The conflict between outside ‘airborne’ managers and original management team and its influence on corporate effectiveness. Management World, 6: 105–113.Google Scholar
Liu, Y. 1996. 小农意识初探 （上）(The investigation of Xiao Nong Yi Shi -I). 社会科学论坛, 6: 31–34.Google Scholar
Liu, Y. 1997a. 小农意识初探（下）(The investigation of Xiao Nong Yi Shi - III). 社会科学论坛, 2: 27–30.Google Scholar
Liu, Y. 1997b. 小农意识初探（中）(The investigation of Xiao Nong Yi Shi -II). 社会科学论坛, 1: 36–38.Google Scholar
Liu, Y., Luo, Y., & Liu, T. 2009. Governing buyer–supplier relationships through transactional and relational mechanisms: Evidence from China. Journal of Operations Management, 27(4): 294–309.Google Scholar
Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. 1991. Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological review, 98(2): 224–253.Google Scholar
Mccarthy, K. J., Dolfsma, W., & Weitzel, U. 2016. The first global merger wave and the enigma of Chinese performance. Management and Organization Review, 12(2): 221–248.Google Scholar
Meadowcroft, M. 2011. The danger of our island mentality. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/dec/25/danger-island-mentality-europeGoogle Scholar
Midler, P. 2007. 'Quality fade': China's great business challenge. Knowledge Wharton. http://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/article/quality-fade-chinas-great-business-challenge/Google Scholar
Midler, P. 2010. Poorly made in China: An insider's account of the China production game. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Son.Google Scholar
Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. 1994. Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.Google Scholar
Molinsky, A. L. 2013. The psychological processes of cultural retooling. Academy of Management Journal, 56(3): 683–710.Google Scholar
Morosini, P., Shane, S., & Singh, H. 1998. National cultural distance and cross-border acquisition performance. Journal of International Business Studies, 29(1): 137–158.Google Scholar
Myers, M. D. 2011. Qualitative research in business & management. London, UK: Sage Publications, Inc.Google Scholar
Needham, J. 1954. Science and civilisation in China. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Ng, I., Lee, Y.-T., & Cardona, P. 2012. Building teams in Chinese organizations. In Huang, X. & Bond, M. H. (Eds.), Handbook of Chinese organizational behavior: Integrating theory, research and practice. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing.Google Scholar
Nisbett, R. E. 2004. The geography of thought: How Asians and Westerners think differently… and why. New York: Simon & Schuster, Inc.Google Scholar
Nisbett, R. E., Peng, K., Choi, I., & Norenzayan, A. 2001. Culture and systems of thought: Holistic versus analytic cognition. Psychological Review, 108(2): 291–310.Google Scholar
Orlikowski, W. J. 2000. Using technology and constituting structures: A practice lens for studying technology in organizations. Organization Science, 11(4): 404–428.Google Scholar
Pan, Y., Rowney, J. A., & Peterson, M. F. 2012. The structure of Chinese cultural traditions: An empirical study of business employees in China. Management and Organization Review, 8(1): 77–95.Google Scholar
Petty, R. E., Tormala, Z. L., Brinol, P., & Jarvis, W. B. G. 2006. Implicit ambivalence from attitude change: An exploration of the PAST model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(1): 21–41.10.1037/0022-3514.90.1.21Google Scholar
Philipsen, S., & Littrell, R. F. 2011. Manufacturing quality and cultural values in China. Asia Pacific Journal of Business and Management, 2(2): 26–44.Google Scholar
Rapoport, M. 2015. New York global group chief charged with securities fraud. The Wall Street Journal. https://www.wsj.com/articles/new-york-global-group-chief-charged-with-securities-fraud-1441908297Google Scholar
Redding, G. 1990. The spirit of Chinese capitalism. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.10.1515/9783110887709Google Scholar
Redding, G. 2014. The unexamined differences in dreams: Chinese firms' globalization and interface challenges. Management and Organization Review, 10(3): 399–404.Google Scholar
Redding, G. 2016. The needham question today. Management and Organization Review, 12(1): 25–34.Google Scholar
Rickert, E. J. 1998. Authoritarianism and economic threat: Implications for political behavior. Political Psychology, 19(4): 707–720.10.1111/0162-895X.00128Google Scholar
Schwartz, S. H. 1999. A theory of cultural values and some implications for work. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 48(4): 23–47.Google Scholar
Scott, W. R. 1995. Institutions and organizations: Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
Sedikides, C. 2012. Self-protection. Handbook of Self and Identity, 327–353.Google Scholar
Shenkar, O. 2009. Becoming multinational: Challenges for Chinese firms. Journal of Chinese Economic and Foreign Trade Studies, 2(3): 149–162.10.1108/17544400910994733Google Scholar
Song, F., Cadsby, C. B., & Bi, Y. 2012. Trust, reciprocity, and guanxi in China: An experimental investigation. Management and Organization Review, 8(2): 397–421.Google Scholar
Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. 1998. Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
Sun, L. 2004. 中国文化的深层结构 (The deep structure of Chinese culture): Guilin Guangxi: Normal University Press.Google Scholar
The Economist. 2014. Island mentality: Bad schools and low aspirations used to be inner-city problems. Not any more. https://www.economist.com/britain/2014/01/27/island-mentalityGoogle Scholar
Tihanyi, L., Griffith, D. A., & Russell, C. J. 2005. The effect of cultural distance on entry mode choice, international diversification, and MNE performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of International Business Studies, 36(3): 270–283.Google Scholar
Triandis, H. C. 1995. Individualism & collectivism. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Tsui, A. S. 2006. Contextualization in Chinese management research. Management and Organization Review, 2(1): 1–13.Google Scholar
Tsui, A. S. 2012. Contextualizing research in a modernizing China. In Huang, X. & Bond, M. H. (Eds.), The handbook of Chinese organizational behavior: Integrating theory, research, and practice: 13–28. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited.Google Scholar
Tsui, A. S. 2013. The spirit of science and socially responsible scholarship. Management and Organization Review, 9(3): 375–394.Google Scholar
Tsui, A. S., Wang, H., & Xin, K. R. 2006. Organizational culture in China: An analysis of culture dimensions and culture types. Management and Organization Review, 2(3): 345–376.10.1111/j.1740-8784.2006.00050.xGoogle Scholar
Webster, D. M., & Kruglanski, A. W. 1994. Individual differences in need for cognitive closure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(6): 1049–1062.Google Scholar
Wen, S. S., Lau, D. C.-S., & Lam, L. W. 2012. Enhancing trust in Chinese organizations. In Huang, X. & Bond, M. H. (Eds.), The handbook of Chinese organizational behavior: Integrating theory, research, and practice: 289–306. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited.Google Scholar
Wu, X. 2013. 大败局 (Big losing battle): Zhe Jiang University Press.Google Scholar
Xin, K. K., & Pearce, J. L. 1996. Guanxi: Connections as substitutes for formal institutional support. Academy of Management Journal, 39(6): 1641–1658.Google Scholar
Yao, J., Zhang, Z.-X., Brett, J., & Murnighan, J. K. 2017. Understanding the trust deficit in China: Mapping positive experience and trust in strangers. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 143: 85–97.Google Scholar
Yuan, Y. 2000. 小农意识与中国现代化 (Xiao nong yi shi and Chinese modernization): 武漢出版社.Google Scholar
Yuan, Y. 2012. 毛泽东改造小农意识的思想叙论 (The discussion of reforming peasant mentality by Mao Zedong). China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House, 1: 42–22.Google Scholar
Zaheer, S. 1995. Overcoming the liability of foreignness. Academy of Management Journal, 38(2): 341–363.Google Scholar
Zhang, A. Y., Tsui, A. S., Song, L. J., Li, C., & Jia, L. 2008. How do I trust thee? The employee-organization relationship, supervisory support, and middle manager trust in the organization. Human Resource Management, 47(1): 111–132.Google Scholar
Zhang, J.-D., Liu, L. A., & Liu, W. 2015. Trust and deception in negotiation: Culturally divergent effects. Management and Organization Review, 11(1): 123–144.Google Scholar
Zhang, Z.-X., Chen, C. C., Liu, L. A., & Liu, X.-F. 2008. Chinese traditions and Western theories: Influences on business leaders in China. In Chen, C. C. & Lee, Y. T. (Eds.), Leadership and management in China: Philosophies, theories, and practices: 239–271. London, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar