Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-gb8f7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T06:20:17.005Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Influence of Informal Relationships on Expatriate Career Performance in China: The Moderating Role of Cultural Intelligence

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 July 2020

Shuang Ren ,
Doren Chadee  and
Alfred Presbitero
Shuang Ren
Affiliation:
Deakin University, Australia
Doren Chadee
Affiliation:
Deakin University, Australia
Alfred Presbitero*
Affiliation:
Deakin University, Australia
*
Corresponding author: Alfred Presbitero ([email protected])
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Pursuing an international career in China can be risky particularly when there is a lack of informal relationships and knowledge of the socio-cultural environment of the country. Drawing from social capital theory of career success and intelligence theory, this study investigates the influence of expatriate manager-local subordinate guanxi on expatriate managers’ career performance and the contingency role of cultural intelligence. Using multi-source data from a sample (N = 154) of expatriate managers in China, our results show that expatriate manager-local subordinate guanxi positively influences expatriate career performance, and that this relationship is positively moderated by expatriates’ cultural intelligence. The broader theoretical and practical implications of the findings for international careers are fully discussed.

摘要

摘要

在中国从事国际职业存在风险，尤其在缺乏非正式关系并对当地社会文化环境缺乏了解的情况下更是如此。借鉴职业成功的社会资本理论和智力理论，本研究考查了外派的经理与本地下属之间的关系对于其职业绩效的影响以及文化智力的作用。采用154位在中国工作的外派人员的多来源数据，我们的结果表明外派经理与本地下属之间的关系积极地影响了外派经理的职业绩效，这个关系受到外派经理的文化智力的影响。本文讨论了这些发现更广的理论意义以及对于国际职业的现实意义。

Аннотация

АННОТАЦИЯ

Построение международной карьеры в Китае может быть рискованным, особенно в том случае, когда не хватает неформальных отношений и знаний о социально-культурной обстановке в стране. Опираясь на теорию социального капитала в отношении карьерного успеха, а также на теорию интеллекта, данное исследование изучает влияние отношений guanxi между иностранными управленцами и местными подчиненными на карьерный рост иностранных менеджеров и особую роль культурного интеллекта. На основании данных из нескольких источников, которые составляют выборку из 154 иностранных менеджеров в Китае, наши результаты показывают, что отношения guanxi между иностранным менеджером и местными подчиненными положительно влияют на карьерный рост иностранных специалистов, а также что культурный интеллект иностранцев благоприятно влияет на эту взаимосвязь. В работе углубленно обсуждаются широкие теоретические и практические выводы для международного карьерного успеха.

Resumen

RESUMEN

Buscar una carrera internacional en China puede ser arriesgado, especialmente cuando hay una falta de relaciones informales y conocimiento del entorno sociocultural del país. Basándose en la teoría del capital social del éxito profesional y la teoría de la inteligencia, este estudio investiga la influencia guanxi del gerente expatriado - subordinado local en el desempeño profesional de los gerentes expatriados y el papel de contingencia de la inteligencia cultural. Utilizando datos de múltiples fuentes de una muestra (N = 154) de gerentes expatriados en China, nuestros resultados muestran que el guanxi entre gerente expatriado-subordinado local influye positivamente en el desempeño de la carrera de los expatriados, y que esta relación es moderada positivamente por la inteligencia cultural de los expatriados. Se discuten ampliamente las implicaciones teóricas y prácticas más amplias de los resultados para las carreras internacionales.

Keywords

career performanceChinacultural intelligenceexpatriate-local guanxi职业绩效中国文化智力外派—本地人员的关系карьерный ростКитайкультурный интеллектотношения guanxi между иностранными управленцами и местными подчиненнымиrendimiento profesionalChinainteligencia culturalguanxi entre expatriado-local
Type
Special Issue Articles
Information
Management and Organization Review , Volume 16 , Special Issue 3: Informal Networks: Dark Sides, Bright Sides, and Unexplored Dimensions , July 2020 , pp. 569 - 593
Copyright
Copyright © 2020 The International Association for Chinese Management Research

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

ACCEPTED BY Senior Editor Yanjie Bian, Guest Editors Fida Afiouni, Sven Horak, and Alena Ledeneva, Senior Editor Maral Muratbekova-Touron, and Deputy Editor Carl F. Fey

References

REFERENCES

Altman, Y., & Baruch, Y. 2012. Global self-initiated corporate expatriate careers: A new era in international assignments? Personnel Review, 41(2): 233–255.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ang, S., Ng, K. Y., Rocksthul, T., Tan, M. L., & Koh, C. 2012. Sub-dimensions of the four factor model of cultural intelligence: Expanding the conceptualization and measurement of cultural intelligence. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 6(4): 295–313.Google Scholar
Ang, S., & Van Dyne, L. 2008. Handbook of cultural intelligence: Theory, management and applications. Armonk, NY: ME Sharpe.Google Scholar
Arli, D., Pekerti, A., Kubacki, K., & Rundle-Thiele, S. 2016. Exploring the impact of self-construal and cultural intelligence on alcohol consumption: Implications for social marketing. International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing, 21(4): 269–285.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barbalet, J. 2016. Chinese individualization, revisited. Journal of Sociology, 52(2): 9–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baruch, Y., Altman, Y., & Tung, R. L. 2016. Career mobility in a global era: Advances in managing expatriation and repatriation. Academy of Management Annals, 10(1): 841–889.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benson, G. S., & Pattie, M. 2008. Is expatriation good for my career? The impact of expatriate assignments on perceived and actual career outcomes. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 19(9): 1636–1653.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berry, J. W. 1997. Immigration, acculturation and adaptation. Applied Psychology, 46(1): 5–34.Google Scholar
Bhaskar-Shrinivas, P., Harrison, D. A., Shaffer, M. A., & Luk, D. M. 2005. Input-based and time-based models of international adjustment: Meta-analytic evidence and theoretical extensions. Academy of Management Journal, 48(2): 257–281.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bian, Y. 1994. Guanxi and the allocation of urban jobs in China. The China Quarterly, 140: 971–999.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bian, Y. 1997. Bring strong ties back in: Indirect ties, network bridges, and job searches in China. American Sociological Review, 62(3): 366–385.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bian, Y. 2006. Guanxi. In Beckert, J. & Zafirovski, M. (Eds.), International encyclopedia of economic sociology: 312–314. London, UK: Routledge.Google Scholar
Bian, Y. 2017. The comparative significance of guanxi. Management and Organization Review, 13(2): 261–267.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bian, Y. 2018. The prevalence and the increasing significance of guanxi. The China Quarterly, doi:10/1017/S0305741018000541.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bian, Y. 2019. Guanxi: How China works. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.Google Scholar
Bian, Y., & Zhang, L. 2014. Corporate social capital in Chinese guanxi culture. Contemporary Perspectives on Organizational Social Networks, 40: 421–443.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Black, J. S. 1988. Work role transitions: A study of American expatriate managers in Japan. Journal of International Business Studies, 19(2): 277–294.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bourdieu, P. 1986. The forms of capital. In Richardson, J. G. (Ed.), Handbook of theory and research for the sociology of education: 241–258. New York, NY: Greenwood Press.Google Scholar
Bourdieu, P., & Wacquant, L. J. D. 1992. An invitation to reflexive sociology. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Bruning, N. S., Sonpar, K., & Wang, X. 2012. Host-country national networks and expatriate effectiveness: A mixed-methods study. Journal of International Business Studies, 43(4): 444–450.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burt, R. S., & Burzynska, K. 2017. Chinese entrepreneurs, social networks, and guanxi. Management and Organization Review, 13(2): 221–260.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burt, R. S., & Opper, S. 2017. Early network events in the later success of Chinese entrepreneurs. Management and Organization Review, 13(3): 1–41.Google Scholar
Burt, R. S., Bian, Y., & Opper, S. 2018. More or less guanxi: Trust is 60% network context, 10% individual difference. Social Networks, 54: 12–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cappellen, T., & Janssens, M. 2010. The career reality of global managers: An examination of career triggers. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 21(11): 1884–1910.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, A. S., Wu, I., & Bian, M. 2014. The moderating effects of active and agreeable conflict management styles on cultural intelligence and cross-cultural adjustment. International Journal of Cross-Cultural Management, 14(3): 270–288.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, C. C., Chen, X. P., & Huang, S. 2013. Chinese guanxi: An integrative review and new directions for future research. Management and Organization Review, 9(1): 167–207.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, M.-H., Chang, Y.-Y., & Lee, C.-Y. 2015. Creative entrepreneurs’ guanxi networks and success: Information and resources. Journal of Business Research, 68(4): 900–905.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, X.-P., & Chen, C. C. 2004. On the intricacies of the Chinese guanxi: A process model of guanxi development. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 21: 305–324.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, Y., Friedman, R., Yu, E., Fang, W., & Lu, X. 2009. Supervisor-subordinate guanxi: Developing a three-dimensional model and scale. Management and Organization Review, 5(3): 375–399.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, Y., Yu, E., & Son, J. 2014. Beyond leader-member exchange (LMX) differentiation: An indigenous approach to leader-member relationship differentiation. The Leadership Quarterly, 25(3): 611–627.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cheung, M. F. Y., Wu, W.-P., Chan, A. K. K., & Wong, M. M. L. 2009. Supervisor-subordinate guanxi and employee work outcomes: The mediating role of job satisfaction. Journal of Business Ethics, 88: 77–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chua, R. Y. J., Morris, M. W., & Mor, S. 2012. Collaborating across cultures: Cultural metacognition and affect-based trust in creative collaboration. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 118(2): 116–131.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collings, D. G., Doherty, N., Luethy, M., & Osborn, D. 2011. Understanding and supporting the career implications of international assignments. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 78(3): 361–371.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeGraaf, N. D., & Flap, H. D. 1998. With a little help from my friends: Social resources as an explanation of occupational status and income in West Germany, the Netherlands, and the United States. Social Forces, 67(2): 452–472.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DiTomaso, N., & Bian, Y. 2018. The structure of labor markets in the US and China: Social capital and guanxi. Management and Organization Review, 14(1): 5–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Earley, C. P., & Ang, S. 2003. Cultural intelligence: Individual interactions across cultures. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Gelfand, M. J., Aycan, Z., Erez, M., & Leung, K. 2017. Cross-cultural industrial organizational psychology and organizational behavior: A hundred-year journey. Journal of Applied Psychology, 102(3): 514–529.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gregory, R., Prifling, M., & Beck, R. 2009. The role of cultural intelligence for the emergence of negotiated culture in IT offshore outsourcing projects. Information Technology & People, 22(3): 223–241.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Groves, K. S., Feyerherm, A., & Gu, M. 2015. Examining cultural intelligence and cross-cultural negotiation effectiveness. Journal of Management Education, 39(2): 209–243.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guthrie, D. 1998. The declining significance of guanxi in China's economic transition. The China Quarterly, 154: 254–282.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haslberger, A., & Brewster, C. 2009. Capital gains: Expatriate adjustment and the psychological contract in international careers. Human Resource Management, 48(3): 379–397.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hayes, A. F. 2013. Introduction to mediation, moderation and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Horak, S., & Restel, K. 2016. A dynamic typology of informal institutions: Learning from the case of guanxi. Management and Organization Review, 12(3): 525–546.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horak, S., & Taube, M. 2016. Same but different? Similarities and fundamental differences of informal social networks in China (guanxi) and Korea (yongo). Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 33(3): 595–616.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huang, T. J., Chi, S. C., & Lawler, J. J. 2005. The relationship between expatriates’ personality traits and their adjustment to international assignments. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 16(9): 1656–1670.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huff, K. C., Song, P., & Gresch, E. B. 2014. Cultural intelligence, personality, and cross-cultural adjustment: A study of expatriates in Japan. International Journal of International Relations, 38: 151–157.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hwang, K. K. 1987. Face and favor: The Chinese power game. American Journal of Sociology, 92(4): 944–974.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Imai, L., & Gelfand, M. J. 2010. The culturally intelligence negotiator: The impact of cultural intelligence (CQ) on negotiation sequences and outcomes. Organizational Behavior & Human Decision Processes, 112(2): 83–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jokinen, T., Brewster, C., & Suutari, V. 2008. Career capital during international work experiences: Contrasting self-initiated expatriate experiences and assigned expatriation. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 19(6): 979–998.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kawai, N., & Strange, R. 2014. Perceived organizational support and expatriate performance: Understanding a mediated model. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 25(17): 2438–2462.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, K., Kirkman, B. L., & Chen, G. 2008. Cultural intelligence and international assignment effectiveness: A conceptual model and preliminary findings. In Ang, S. & Dyne, L. V. (Eds.), Handbook of cultural intelligence: Theory, measurement, and applications: 71–90. Armonk, NY: ME Sharpe.Google Scholar
Kraimer, M. L., Wayne, S. J., & Jaworski, R. A. A. 2001. Sources of support and expatriate performance: The mediating role of expatriate adjustment. Personnel Psychology, 54(1): 71–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lamont, M., & Lareau, A. 1988. Cultural capital: Allusions, gaps and glissandos in recent theoretical developments. Sociological Theory, 1: 153–168.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Law, K. S., Wong, C. S., Wang, D., & Wang, L. 2000. Effect of supervisor-subordinate guanxi on supervisory decisions in China: An empirical investigation. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 11(4): 751–765.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, L. Y., & Sukoco, B. M. 2010. The effects of cultural intelligence on expatriate performance: The moderating effects of international experience. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 21(7): 963–981.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, L. Y., Veasna, S., & Sukoco, B. M. 2014. The antecedents of cultural effectiveness of expatriation: Moderating effects of psychological contracts. Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, 52(2): 215–233.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lin, N. 1999. Building a network theory of social capital. Connections, 22(1): 28–51.Google Scholar
Lin, N. 2001a. Guanxi: A conceptual analysis. In So, A. Y., Lin, N., & Poston, D. (Eds.), The Chinese triangle of mainland China, Taiwan, and Hong Kong: 154–166. Greenwood Press: Westport.Google Scholar
Lin, N. 2001b. Social capital: A theory of social structure and action. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liu, X., & Shaffer, M. A. 2005. An investigation of expatriate adjustment and performance as social capital perspective. International Journal of Cross-Cultural Management, 5(3): 235–254.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liu, X. Y., & Wang, J. 2013. Abusive supervision and organizational citizenship behaviour: Is supervisor-subordinate guanxi a mediator? International Journal of Human Resource Management, 24(7): 1471–1489.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Malek, M. A., & Budhwar, P. 2013. Cultural intelligence as a predictor of expatriate adjustment and performance in Malaysia. Journal of World Business, 48(2): 222–231.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marschan, R., Welch, D., & Welch, L. 1996. Control in less-hierarchical multinationals: The role of personal networks and informal communication. International Business Review, 5(2): 137–150.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McClean, E., Martin, S. R., Emich, K., & Woodruff, T. 2018. The social consequences of voice: An examination of voice type and gender on status and subsequent leader emergence. Academy of Management Journal, 61(5): https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2016.0148CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McNulty, Y., & Vance, C. M. 2017. Dynamic global careers: A new conceptualization of expatriate career paths. Personnel Review, 46(2): 205–221.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mendenhall, M., & Oddou, G. 1985. The dimensions of expatriate acculturation: A review. Academy of Management Review, 10(1): 39–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mor, S., Morris, M., & Joh, J. 2013. Identifying and training adaptive cross-cultural management skills: The crucial role of cultural metacognition. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 12(3): 453–475.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nilsson, J. E., Flores, L. Y., Berkel, L. V., Schale, C. L., Linnemeyer, R. M., & Summer, I. 2007. International career articles: A content analysis of four journals across 34 years. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 70(3): 602–613.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olsen, J. E., & Martins, L. L. 2009. The effects of expatriate demographic characteristics on adjustment: A social identity approach. Human Resource Management, 48(2): 311–328.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Osman-Gani, A. M., & Rocksthul, T. 2008. Antecedents and consequences of social network characteristics for expatriate adjustment and performance in overseas assignments: Implications for HRD. Human Resource Development Review, 7(1): 32–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ott, D. L., & Michailova, S. 2018. Cultural intelligence: A review and new research avenues. International Journal of Management Review, 20(1): 99–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peterson, M. F., & Thomas, D. C. 2007. Organizational behavior in multinational organizations. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 28(3): 261–279.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. 2003. Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5): 879–889.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Preacher, K. J., & Kelley, K. 2011. Effect size measures for mediation models: Quantitative strategies for communicating indirect effects. Psychological Methods, 16(2): 93–100.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Presbitero, A., & Quita, C. 2017. Expatriate career intentions: Links to career adaptability and cultural intelligence. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 98: 118–126.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Puck, J. F., Kittler, M. G., & Wright, C. 2008. Does it really work? Re-assessing the impact of pre-departure cross-cultural training in expatriate adjustment. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 19(12): 2182–2197.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Putnam, R. 2000. Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.Google Scholar
Ren, S., & Chadee, D. 2017a. Influence of work pressure on proactive skill development in China: The role of career networking behavior and guanxi HRM. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 98: 152–162.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ren, S., & Chadee, D. 2017b. Is guanxi always good for employee self-development in China? Examining non-linear and moderated relationships. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 98: 108–117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ren, S., & Chadee, D. 2019. Influence of guanxi on hospitality career performance in China: Is more necessarily better? International Journal of Hospitality Management: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2019.102420CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ren, S., Wood, R. E., & Yang, F. 2017. How work-related capabilities influence job performance: A relational perspective. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 30(7): 1157–1180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Richardson, J., & Mallon, M. 2005. Career interrupted? The case of the self-directed expatriate. Journal of World Business, 40(4): 409–420.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rockstuhl, T., & Ng, K. Y. 2015. The effects of cultural intelligence on interpersonal trust in multicultural teams. In Ang, S. & Van Dyne, L. (Eds.), Handbook of cultural intelligence: 224–238. New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar
Rockstuhl, T., & Van Dyne, L. 2018. A bi-factor theory of the four-factor model of cultural intelligence: Meta-analysis and theoretical extensions. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 148: 124–144.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rogelberg, S. G., & Stanton, J. M. 2007. Introduction: Understanding and dealing with organizational survey non-response. Organizational Research Methods, 10(2): 195–209.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenauer, D., Homan, A. C., Horstmeier, C. A., & Voelpel, S. C. 2016. Managing nationality diversity: The interactive effect of leaders’ cultural intelligence and task interdependence. British Journal of Management, 27(3): 628–645.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
SAMPI. 2016. China expat population: Stats and graphs. Available from URL: http://sampi.co/china-expat-population-statistics/Google Scholar
Seibert, S. E., Kraimer, M. L., & Liden, R. C. 2001. A social capital theory of career success. Academy of Management Journal, 44(2): 219–237.Google Scholar
Selmer, J. 2001. Antecedents of expatriate/local relationships: Pre-knowledge vs. socialization tactics. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 12(6): 916–925.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shaffer, M. A., Kraimer, M. L., Chen, Y. P., & Bolino, M. C. 2012. Choices, challenges, and career consequences of global work experiences: A review and future agenda. Journal of Management, 38(4): 1282–1327.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, P. B., Huang, H. J., Harb, C., & Torres, C. 2011. How distinctive are indigenous ways of achieving influence? A comparative study of guanxi, wasta, jeitinho and ‘pulling strings’. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 43(1): 135–150.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spurk, D., Hirschi, A., & Dries, N. 2019. Antecedents and outcomes of objective versus subjective career success: Competing perspectives and future directions. Journal of Management, 45(1): 35–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stahl, G. K., Miller, E. L., & Tung, R. L. 2002. Toward the boundaryless career: A closer look at the expatriate career concept and the perceived implications of an international assignment. Journal of World Business, 37(3): 216–227.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. 1999. The theory of successful intelligence. Review of General Psychology, 3(4): 292–316.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sternberg, R. J. 2012. Intelligence in its cultural context. In Gelfand, M. J., Chiu, C.-Y., & Hong, Y. Y. (Eds.), Advances in culture and psychology (Vol. 2): 205–248. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sternberg, R. J., & Berg, C. A. 1986. Quantitative integration: Definitions of intelligence: A comparison of 1921 and 1986 symposia. In Sternberg, R. J. & Detterman, D. K. (Eds.), What is intelligence? Contemporary viewpoints on its nature and definition: 155–162. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J., & Detterman, D. K. 1986. What is intelligence? Contemporary viewpoints on its nature and definition. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.Google Scholar
Suutari, V. 2003. Global managers: Career orientation, career tracks, life-style implications, and career commitment. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 18(3): 185–207.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Suutari, V., Brewster, C., Makela, L., Dickmann, M., & Tornikoski, C. 2018. The effect of international work experience on the career success of expatriates: A comparison of assigned and self-initiated expatriates. Human Resource Management, 57(1): 37–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. 2007. Using multivariate statistics. Boston, MA: Pearson Education.Google Scholar
Takeuchi, R. 2010. A critical review of expatriate adjustment research through a multiple stakeholder view: Progress, emerging trends, and prospects. Journal of Management, 36(4): 1040–1064.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tams, S., & Arthur, M. B. 2007. Studying careers across cultures: Distinguishing international, cross-cultural, and globalization perspectives. Career Development International, 12(1): 86–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, D. C., Liao, Y., Aycan, Z., Cerdin, J. L., Pekerti, A. A., Ravlin, E. C., & Moeller, N. 2015. Cultural intelligence: A theory-based, short-form measure. Journal of International Business Studies, 46(9): 1099–1118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Toh, S. M., & DeNisi, A. S. 2003. Host country national reactions to expatriate pay policies: A model and implications. Academy of Management Review, 28(4): 606–621.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Toh, S. M., & DeNisi, A. S. 2005. A local perspective to expatriate success. Academy of Management Executive, 19(1): 132–146.Google Scholar
Tung, R. L. 1987. Expatriate assignments: Enhancing success and minimizing failure. Academy of Management Perspectives, 1(2): 117–125.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Bakel, M., van Oudenhoven, J. P., & Gerritsen, M. 2015. Developing a high-quality intercultural relationship: Expatriates and their local host. Journal of Global Mobility, 3(1): 25–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vance, C. M., Vaiman, V., & Andersen, T. 2009. The vital liaison role of host country nationals in MNC knowledge management. Human Resource Management, 48(4): 649–659.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van der Laken, P., van Engen, M., van Veldhoven, M., & Paauwe, J. 2019. Fostering expatriate success: A meta-analysis of the differential benefits of social support. Human Resource Management Review, 29(4): doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2018.12.003CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Dyne, L., Ang, S., Ng, K. Y., Rockstuhl, T., Tan, M. L., & Koh, C. 2012. Sub-dimensions of the four-factor model of cultural intelligence: Expanding the conceptualization and measurement of cultural intelligence. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 6(4): 295–313.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Varma, A., Budhwar, P., & Pichler, S. 2011. Chinese host country nationals’ willingness to help expatriates: The role of social categorization. Thunderbird International Business Review, 53(3): 353–364.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Volpone, S. D., Marquardt, D. J., Casper, W. J., & Avery, D. R. 2018. Minimizing cross-cultural maladaptation: How minority status facilitates change in international acculturation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 103(3): 249–255.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wang, X., & Kanungo, R. N. 2004. Nationality, social network and psychological well-being: Expatriates in China. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 15(4–5): 775–793.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wei, L. Q., Liu, J., Chen, Y. Y., & Wu, L. Z. 2010. Political skill, supervisor-subordinate guanxi and career prospects in Chinese firms. Journal of Management Studies, 47(3): 437–454.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Welbourne, T. M., Johnson, D. E., & Erez, A. 1998. The role-based performance scale: Validity analysis of a theory-based measure. Academy of Management Journal, 41(5): 540–555.Google Scholar
Wu, P. C., & Ang, S. H. 2011. The impact of expatriate supporting practices and cultural intelligence on cross-cultural adjustment and performance of expatriates in Singapore. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 22(13): 2683–2702.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Xu, X.-J., & Chen, X.-P. 2017. Unlocking expatriates’ job creativity: The role of cultural learning, and metacognitive and motivational cultural intelligence. Management and Organization Review, 13(4): 767–794.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yamagishi, T., & Yamagishi, M. 1994. Trust and commitment in the United States and Japan. Motivation and Emotion, 18(2): 129–166.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yamazaki, Y., & Kayes, D. C. 2004. An experiential approach to cross-cultural learning: A review and integration of competencies for successful expatriate adaptation. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 3(4): 362–379.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yang, M. M. 2002. The resilience of guanxi and its new deployments: A critique of some new guanxi scholarship. The China Quarterly, 170: 459–476.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhang, X. A., Li, N., & Harris, T. B. 2015. Putting non-work ties to work: The case of guanxi in supervisor-subordinate relationships. The Leadership Quarterly, 26(1): 37–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhang, Y., & Zhang, Z. 2006. Guanxi and organizational dynamics in China: A link between individual and organizational levels. Journal of Business Ethics, 67(4): 375–392.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhao, S., Liu, Y., & Zhou, L. 2016. How does a boundaryless mindset enhance expatriate job performance? The mediating role of proactive resource acquisition tactics and the moderating role of behavioural cultural intelligence. International Journal of Human Resource Management: doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2016.1253033Google Scholar
Zhu, J., Wanberg, C. R., Harrison, D. A., & Diehn, E. W. 2016. Ups and downs of the expatriate experience? Understanding work adjustment trajectories and career outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 101(4): 549–568.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed