This review is a first attempt to combine and compare spatial distribution of the three main water sources, rain, dew and humid air, with water-related traits of mainly epiphytic macrolichens in a conceptual and functional model. By comparing climatic and lichenological knowledge, various effects of dewfall, rainfall and humid air on epiphytic lichen morphology and function are analyzed to search for traits and patterns. Although dew, rain and humid air cause lichen hydration and activate photosynthesis, these atmospheric hydration sources influence and shape lichens differently. In order to visualize hydration patterns, dew, rain and humid air are shown as corners in a triangle exhibiting the various combinations of these hydration sources. The sources of hydration vary on temporal scales, and on the spatial scales: regional, landscape, stand and tree. Lichen growth form, photobiont type, water-holding capacity (WHC) and suprasaturation depression show clear patterns within the hydration triangle. For most lichen species, one average pre-dawn dewfall approximately fills their average internal WHC. This suggests that lichens are optimally designed to utilize dew rather than rain, consistent with literature emphasizing dew as a driver for annual C-assimilation in chlorolichens. However, rain is needed to fill their external WHC and to fully hydrate most cyanolichens. Including the sources of hydration and internal lichen variables, such as water-holding capacity, will improve modelling of local and global future scenarios on lichen distribution and biomass production.

Heteroacanthella ellipsospora is described as new to science. It is the only known lichenicolous Heteroacanthella, always found parasitizing apothecia and the surrounding thallus of the crustose epiphytic lichen Lecanora carpinea. The new parasite has so far only been found in two Spanish provinces, Jaén and Madrid. The shape and size of its basidiospores, the basidia with acanthoid ornamentation, acanthohyphidia, as well as its parasitic lichenicolous habitat, with a replacement of host tissues by the parasite hymenium, are useful diagnostic characters.

The new generic name Bryobilimbia is proposed for Lecidea hypnorum and the closely related taxa Lecidea ahlesii var. ahlesii, L. ahlesii var. nemoralis, L. diapensiae, L. sanguineoatra and Mycobilimbia australis. A phylogenetic analysis based on five genes shows that Lecidea berengeriana does not belong to this group but is more closely related to Romjularia. Both groups of species have been included in Mycobilimbia by some authors but are instead shown to be most closely related to a group of genera (including Clauzadea, Farnoldia, Lecidoma and Romjularia) that do not belong to Lecideaceae s. str. A neotype is selected for Lichen sanguineoater Wulfen and the new combinations Bryobilimbia ahlesii var. ahlesii, B. ahlesii var. nemoralis, B. australis, B. diapensiae, B. hypnorum and B. sanguineoatra are proposed. A lectotype is also selected for L. templetonii Taylor.

Eight species of Herpothallon are recorded from the Andaman Islands, four of which are described as new: Herpothallon coralloides, H. globuliferum, H. lutescens and H. minutum. All these new species have a non-pigmented thallus, prothallus, hypothallus and pseudisidia. Herpothallon coralloides and H. lutescens possess cylindrical pseudisidia whereas H. globuliferum and H. minutum have granular to globose pseudisidia. Herpothallon globuliferum is foliicolous. Herpothallon echinatum, H. granulare, H. granulosum and H. philippinum are reported for the first time from the Andaman Islands. A key to the Indian species is provided. Heiomasia pallescens (Graphidaceae), a byssoid taxon with a disc-shaped isidioid structure, is also described as new to science.

The importance of the anatomy and fine morphology of reproductive structures for the systematics of the family Parmeliaceae is highlighted by the new genus Notoparmelia, described here for Australasian species of Parmelia. These species were known to form a monophyletic lineage but correlated characters for its delimitation were lacking. A major characteristic used here for the circumscription of this genus is the overlooked apothecial anatomy. The proper exciple is reduced to one layer formed exclusively by large hyphae without any clear branching pattern and embedded in an abundant polysaccharide matrix. This feature differs from the rest of Parmeliaceae which have a stratified three-layered proper exciple composed of a thin hyaline layer, intermediate layer and basal cortex-like structure. The anatomy of proper exciple, together with the thickness of spore walls and other morphological characters such as lobe morphology, pseudocyphellae and rhizine type, allow a precise diagnosis of the new genus. The area of distribution is also useful for characterizing this genus. Sixteen new combinations are proposed.

Three species of Graphis (Graphidaceae) are described from Mexico from two research stations of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM): Chamela Biological Station in the Cuixmala-Chamela Biosphere Reserve, Jalisco, and Los Tuxtlas Tropical Biological Station in the Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve, Veracruz. The new species Graphis bungartzii Barcenas-Peña, Lücking, Herrera-Campos & R. Miranda is characterized by erumpent lirellae with a lateral thalline margin, striate labia and laterally carbonized exciple, transversely septate ascospores, and norstictic and connorstictic acids. Graphis chamelensis Barcenas-Peña & Lücking has prominent lirellae with a basal to lateral thalline margin, entire labia and completely carbonized exciple, transversely septate ascospores, and norstictic acid. Finally, Graphis rosae-emiliae Barcenas-Peña & Lücking is characterized by erumpent lirellae with lateral thalline margin, striate labia and completely carbonized exciple, transversely septate ascospores, and no substances detected by TLC. We present updates to the world key to Graphis for 41 newly described or reinstated species since the world key was published in 2009. The following new combination is proposed: Pallidogramme parvicarpum (B. O. Sharma & Khadilkar) Lücking comb. nov., based on Graphis parvicarpa B. O. Sharma & Khadilkar.

During 2010–12 collecting seasons, we visited 27 islands, locally called keys, in Florida Bay within the boundaries of Everglades National Park for the purpose of investigating their lichen flora. A disproportionate number of the resultant collections belong to Enterographa Fée, a genus mostly tropical in distribution. Currently, 11 species are known from Everglades National Park, of which Enterographa bradleyana, E. caudata, E. murrayana and E. nitidula are described here as new to science. Enterographa bradleyana is superificially similar to Enterographa divergens but has smaller ascospores, a wider perispore and contains gyrophoric acid. Enterographa candata is easily identified by an unusual chemistry of lichexanthone and schizopeltic acid and its extremely long tailed ascospores. Enterographa murrayana resembles E. anguinella in the field but has a different chemistry, wider ascospores with more septation and a wider perispore. Enterographa nitidula has an unusual fine powdery and glossy thallus, small 4-celled ascospores and contains an unidentified substance. Because a large number of Enterographa have been described (20 including those newly described here) since Sparrius monographed the genus in 2004, an updated world key to the genus is provided.

Five new species of corticolous pyrenocarpous lichens are described from tropical and subtropical forests in the Chaco and Misiones provinces in NE Argentina: Aspidothelium submuriforme with globose, grey ascomata and ascospores mostly 7-septate with 0–2 oblique longitudinal septa, 25–28×8–10 µm; Pyrenula inspersoleucotrypa, characterized by a thallus without pseudocyphellae, aggregated ascomata, an inspersed hamathecium, and ascospores of 17–20×6·5–8·0 µm with diamond-shaped lumina; Pyrenula punctoleucotrypa, which has a thallus with pseudocyphellae, aggregated ascomata in a conical pseudostroma, with fused ostioles, not inspersed hamathecium, and ascospores of 10–12×4–5 µm with rounded lumina; Strigula muriconidiata, containing immersed pycnidia with hyaline, densely muriform, ellipsoid conidia, 90–103×32–35 µm; Trypethelium globolucidum, forming sessile pseudostromata with black and whitish parts, an inspersed hamathecium, ascospores 13–19-septate, (65–)83–97×11·5–14·5 µm, lumina rounded to lentiform and containing lichexanthone.

Phylogenetic relationships of Stereocaulon with emphasis on the crustose taxa were studied based on nuclear ribosomal ITS1–5.8S–ITS2 and partial beta-tubulin sequences. The placement of four of the six crustose species currently included in the genus has previously been confirmed based on molecular data. It has, however, remained unresolved whether the crustose growth form is a plesiomorphic or apomorphic feature within Stereocaulon, due to contradictory placements of the crustose species in earlier studies. The aim of this study was to clarify the position of the crustose species by including additional data, especially of S. nivale and S. plicatile, which have not been included in previous analyses. The inclusion of S. plicatile in the genus is of particular interest as it is the only species in the genus with submurifrom to muriform ascospores. Altogether 37 specimens representing 31 species of the ingroup, including all the crustose Stereocaulon species, were incorporated in the analyses. Conventional, as well as direct optimization parsimony, maximum likelihood and Bayesian analyses were performed. The results show that the crustose species do not form a monophyletic entity and that the crustose growth form is a plesiomorphic feature within Stereocaulon. The crustose S. nivale and S. plicatile are nested within the genus and their inclusion in Stereocaulon is thereby confirmed. The nested position of S. plicatile indicates that the submuriform to muriform spore type has been gained independently within the genus. Here, S. plicatile is also reported for the first time from Scandinavia.

The phylogenetic position of the genus Geisleria and its type species G. sychnogonioides was reconstructed using sequence data of the mitochondrial small subunit (mtSSU), the nuclear large subunit rDNA (nuLSU) and the first subunit of the RNA polymerase (RPB1). The species, previously classified in Verrucariaceae (Eurotiomycetes) and Strigulaceae (Dothideomycetes), is sister to the type of the genus Absconditella, A. sphagnorum, and nested within the genera Absconditella and Cryptodiscus combined (which also includes the lichenized Bryophagus). At first glance it appears to be a further example of parallel evolution of perithecioid ascomata within Stictidaceae (Lecanoromycetes: Ostropales), besides Ostropa and Robergea, adding to the growing list of perithecioid forms nested within apothecioid lineages in Ostropomycetidae, and specifically Ostropales, with other examples known from Graphidaceae (several genera), Gyalectaceae (Belonia), and Porinaceae. However, revision of type material collected by Nitschke revealed that the species actually develops typical apothecia with a narrowly exposed disc. We conclude that Geisleria sychnogonoides was erroneously considered a pyrenocarpous taxon, because in dry conditions the apothecia are closed and not recognizable as such. The species usually grows on unstable soil and therefore often only develops young, more or less closed ascomata (yet with mature ascospores), and has also been confused with the superficially similar Belonia incarnata, in which the ascomata remain closed even when mature. Geisleriasychnogonioides has so far only been known as a rarely reported pioneer species from loamy soils in Europe and North America. Here it is reported to occur abundantly on lateritic soils in subtropical Brazil, suggesting that it is cosmopolitan and possibly common, but much overlooked.