Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-7cvxr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T02:36:03.451Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Population genetics of lichen-forming fungi – a review

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 August 2010

Silke WERTH
Silke WERTH
Affiliation:
Research Unit for Biodiversity and Conservation Biology, Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL, Zürcherstrasse 111, CH-8903 Birmensdorf, Switzerland; Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California at Los Angeles, 621 Charles E Young Drive South, Los Angeles, California 90095-1606, USA. Email: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Population genetics investigates the distribution of genetic variation in natural populations and the genetic differentiation among populations. Lichen-forming fungi are exciting subjects for population genetic studies due to their obligate symbiosis with a green-algal and/or cyanobacterial photobiont, and because their different reproductive strategies could influence fungal genetic structures in various ways. In this review, first, I briefly summarize the results from studies of chemotype variation in populations of lichen-forming fungi. Second, I compare and evaluate the DNA-based molecular tools available for population genetics of lichen-forming fungi. Third, I review the literature available on the genetic structure of lichen fungi to show general trends. I discuss some fascinating examples, and point out directions for future research.

Keywords

genetic structuregenetic variationlichenized ascomycetesphylogeographypopulation
Type
Research Article
Information
The Lichenologist , Volume 42 , Issue 5 , September 2010 , pp. 499 - 519
Copyright
Copyright © British Lichen Society 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alvarez, I. & Wendel, J. F. (2003) Ribosomal ITS sequences and plant phylogenetic inference. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 29: 417–434.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Armaleo, D., Zhang, Y. & Cheung, S. (2008b) Light might regulate divergently depside and depsidone accumulation in the lichen Parmotrema hypotropum by affecting thallus temperature and water potential. Mycologia 100: 565–576.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Armstrong, R. A. (1987) Dispersal in a population of the lichen Hypogymnia physodes. Environmental and Experimental Botany 27: 357–363.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Armstrong, R. A. (1990) Dispersal, establishment and survival of soredia and fragments of the lichen Hypogymnia physodes (L) Nyl. New Phytologist 114: 239–245.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Armstrong, R. A. (1994) Dispersal of soredia from individual soralia of the lichen Hypogymnia physodes (L.) Nyl. in a simple wind tunnel. Environmental and Experimental Botany 34: 39–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Avise, J. C., Arnold, J., Ball, R. M., Bermingham, E., Lamb, T., Neigel, J. E., Reeb, C. A. & Saunders, N. C. (1987) Intraspecific phylogeography – the mitochondrial-DNA bridge between population genetics and systematics. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 18: 489–522.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bailey, R. & James, P. (1979) Birds and the dispersal of lichen propagules. Lichenologist 11: 105–106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baloch, E. & Grube, M. (2009) Pronounced genetic diversity in tropical epiphyllous lichen fungi. Molecular Ecology 18: 2185–2197.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beard, K. H. & DePriest, P. T. (1996) Genetic variation within and among mats of the reindeer lichen Cladina subtenuis. Lichenologist 28: 171–181.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bjerke, J. W., Elvebakk, A., Dominguez, B. & Dahlback, A. (2005) Seasonal trends in usnic acid concentrations of arctic, alpine and Patagonian populations of the lichen Flavocetraria nivalis. Phytochemistry 66: 337–344.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buschbom, J. (2007) Migration between continents: geographical structure and long-distance gene flow in Porpidia flavicunda (lichen-forming Ascomycota). Molecular Ecology 16: 1835–1846.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cassie, D. M. & Piercey-Normore, M. D. (2008) Dispersal in a sterile lichen-forming fungus, Thamnolia subuliformis (Ascomycotina: Icmadophilaceae). Botany-Botanique 86: 751–762.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Culberson, C. F., Culberson, W. L. & Johnson, A. (1988) Gene flow in lichens. American Journal of Botany 75: 1135–1139.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Culberson, C. F., Culberson, W. L. & Johnson, A. (1992) Characteristic lichen products in cultures of chemotypes of the Ramalina siliquosa complex. Mycologia 84: 705–714.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Culberson, W. L. (1970) Chemosystematics and ecology of lichen-forming fungi. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 1: 153–170.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Culberson, W. L. (1986) Chemistry and sibling speciation in the lichen-forming fungi: ecological and biological considerations. Bryologist 89: 123–131.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Culberson, W. L. & Culberson, C. F. (1967) Habitat selection by chemically differentiated races of lichens. Science 158: 1195–1197.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Culberson, W. L. & Culberson, C. F. (1982) Evolutionary modification of ecology in a common lichen species. Systematic Botany 7: 158–169.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Culberson, W. L. & Culberson, C. F. (1994) Secondary metabolites as a tool in ascomycete systematics: lichenized fungi. In Ascomycete Systematics: Problems and Perspectives in the Nineties (Hawksworth, D. L., ed.): 155-163. New York: Plenum Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Culberson, W. L., Culberson, C. F. & Johnson, A. (1977) Correlations between secondary-product chemistry and ecogeography in the Ramalina siliquosa group (lichens). Plant Systematics and Evolution 127: 191–200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Culberson, W. L., Culberson, C. F. & Johnson, A. (1993) Speciation in lichens of the Ramalina siliquosa complex (Ascomycotina, Ramalinaceae): gene flow and reproductive isolation. American Journal of Botany 80: 1472–1481.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dépraz, A., Cordellier, M., Hausser, J. & Pfenninger, M. (2008) Postglacial recolonization at a snail's pace (Trochulus villosus): confronting competing refugia hypotheses using model selection. Molecular Ecology 17: 2449–2462.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DePriest, P. T. (1993) Small subunit rDNA variation in a population of lichen fungi due to optional group-I introns. Gene 134: 67–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DePriest, P. T. (2004) Early molecular investigations of lichen-forming symbionts: 1986–2001. Annual Review of Microbiology 58: 273–301.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dettman, J. R. & Taylor, J. W. (2004) Mutation and evolution of microsatellite loci in Neurospora. Genetics 168: 1231–1248.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dyer, P. S., Murtagh, G. J. & Crittenden, P. D. (2001) Use of RAPD-PCR DNA fingerprinting and vegetative incompatibility tests to investigate genetic variation within lichen-forming fungi. Symbiosis 31: 213–229.Google Scholar
Ellegren, H. (2000) Microsatellite mutations in the germline: implications for evolutionary inference. Trends in Genetics 16: 551–558.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Excoffier, L. (2007) Analysis of population subdivision. In Handbook of Statistical Genetics (Balding, D. J., Bishop, M. & Cannings, C., eds.): 980–1020. Chichester, UK: Wiley.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fahselt, D. (2008) Individuals and populations of lichens. In Lichen Biology (Nash, T. H., ed.): 252–273. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gauslaa, Y. & McEvoy, M. (2005) Seasonal changes in solar radiation drive acclimation of the sun-screening compound parietin in the lichen Xanthoria parietina. Basic and Applied Ecology 6: 75–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gauslaa, Y. & Solhaug, K. A. (2001) Fungal melanins as a sun screen for symbiotic green algae in the lichen Lobaria pulmonaria. Oecologia 126: 462–471.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grivet, D., Deguilloux, M. F., Petit, R. J. & Sork, V. L. (2006) Contrasting patterns of historical colonization in white oaks (Quercus spp.) in California and Europe. Molecular Ecology 15: 4085–4093.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hale, M. E. Jr. (1956a) Chemical strains of the lichen Parmelia furfuracea. American Journal of Botany 43: 456–459.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hale, M. E. Jr. (1956b) Chemical strains of the Parmelia conspersa-stenophylla group in south central United States. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 83: 218–220.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hale, M. E. Jr. (1963) Populations of chemical strains in the lichen Cetraria ciliaris. Brittonia 15: 126–133.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heinken, T. (1999) Dispersal patterns of terricolous lichens by thallus fragments. Lichenologist 31: 603–612.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hewitt, G. (2000) The genetic legacy of the Quaternary ice ages. Nature 405: 907–913.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hewitt, G. M. (1996) Some genetic consequences of ice ages, and their role in divergence and speciation. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 58: 247–276.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hewitt, G. M. (1999) Post-glacial re-colonization of European biota. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 68: 87–112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hey, J., Won, Y. J., Sivasundar, A., Nielsen, R. & Markert, J. A. (2004) Using nuclear haplotypes with microsatellites to study gene flow between recently separated Cichlid species. Molecular Ecology 13: 909–919.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Högberg, N., Kroken, S., Thor, G. & Taylor, J. W. (2002) Reproductive mode and genetic variation suggest a North American origin of European Letharia vulpina. Molecular Ecology 11: 1191–1196.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Honegger, R. & Zippler, U. (2007) Mating systems in representatives of Parmeliaceae, Ramalinaceae and Physciaceae (Lecanoromycetes, lichen-forming ascomycetes). Mycological Research 111: 424–432.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Honegger, R., Zippler, U., Gansner, H. & Scherrer, S. (2004a) Mating systems in the genus Xanthoria (lichen-forming ascomycetes). Mycological Research 108: 480–488.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Honegger, R., Zippler, U., Scherrer, S. & Dyer, P. S. (2004b) Genetic diversity in Xanthoria parietina (L.) Th. Fr. (lichen-forming ascomycete) from worldwide locations. Lichenologist 36: 381–390.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jarne, P. & Lagoda, P. J. L. (1996) Microsatellites, from molecules to populations and back. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 11: 424–429.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Joost, S., Bonin, A., Bruford, M. W., Despres, L., Conord, C., Erhardt, G. & Taberlet, P. (2007a) A spatial analysis method (SAM) to detect candidate loci for selection: towards a landscape genomics approach to adaptation. Molecular Ecology 16: 3955–3969.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Joost, S., Negrini, R., Milanesi, E., Pellecchia, M. & Marsan, P. A. (2007b) Detecting footprints of selection in Ovis aries by a spatial analysis approach. Italian Journal of Animal Science 6: 171–173.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jump, A. S., Hunt, J. M., Martinez-Izquierdo, J. A. & Penuelas, J. (2006) Natural selection and climate change: temperature-linked spatial and temporal trends in gene frequency in Fagus sylvatica. Molecular Ecology 15: 3469–3480.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kosman, E. & Leonard, K. J. (2007) Conceptual analysis of methods applied to assessment of diversity within and distance between populations with asexual or mixed mode of reproduction. New Phytologist 174: 683–696.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kroken, S. & Taylor, J. W. (2000) Phylogenetic species, reproductive mode, and specificity of the green alga Trebouxia forming lichens with the fungal genus Letharia. Bryologist 103: 645–660.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kroken, S. & Taylor, J. W. (2001a) A gene genealogical approach to recognize phylogenetic species boundaries in the lichenized fungus Letharia. Mycologia 93: 38–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kroken, S. & Taylor, J. W. (2001b) Outcrossing and recombination in the lichenized fungus Letharia. Fungal Genetics and Biology 34: 83–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lättman, H., Lindblom, L., Mattsson, J. E., Milberg, P., Skage, M. & Ekman, S. (2009) Estimating the dispersal capacity of the rare lichen Cliostomum corrugatum. Biological Conservation 142: 1870–1878.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lindblom, L. & Ekman, S. (2006) Genetic variation and population differentiation in the lichen-forming ascomycete Xanthoria parietina on the island Storfosna, central Norway. Molecular Ecology 15: 1545–1559.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lindblom, L. & Ekman, S. (2007) New evidence corroborates population differentiation in Xanthoria parietina. Lichenologist 39: 259–271.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lorentsson, S. & Mattsson, J. E. (1999) New reports of soredia dispersed by ants, Formica cunicularia. Lichenologist 31: 204–207.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loveless, M. D. & Hamrick, J. L. (1984) Ecological determinants of genetic structure in plant populations. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 15: 65–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lücking, R., Papong, K., Thammathaworn, A. & Boonpragob, K. (2008) Historical biogeography and phenotype-phylogeny of Chroodiscus (lichenized Ascomycota: Ostropales: Graphidaceae). Journal of Biogeography 35: 2311–2327.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Manel, S., Schwartz, M. K., Luikart, G. & Taberlet, P. (2003) Landscape genetics: combining landscape ecology and population genetics. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 18: 189–197.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mattsson, J. E., Hansson, A.-C. & Lindblom, L. (2009) Genetic variation in relation to substratum preferences of Hypogymnia physodes. Lichenologist 41: 547–555.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meudt, H. M. & Clarke, A. C. (2007) Almost forgotten or latest practice? AFLP applications, analyses and advances. Trends in Plant Science 12: 106–117.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moritz, C. (1994) Defining ‘evolutionary significant units’ for conservation. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 9: 373–375.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moritz, C. (2002) Strategies to protect biological diversity and the evolutionary processes that sustain it. Systematic Biology 51: 238–254.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mueller, U. G. & Wolfenbarger, L. L. (1999) AFLP genotyping and fingerprinting. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 14: 389–394.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murtagh, G. J., Dyer, P. S., McClure, P. C. & Crittenden, P. D. (1999) Use of randomly amplified polymorphic DNA markers as a tool to study variation in lichen-forming fungi. Lichenologist 31: 257–267.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murtagh, G. J., Dyer, P. S. & Crittenden, P. D. (2000) Reproductive systems – sex and the single lichen. Nature 404: 564–564.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Myllys, L., Högnabba, F., Lohtander, K., Thell, A., Stenroos, S. & Hyvonen, J. (2005) Phylogenetic relationships of Stereocaulaceae based on simultaneous analysis of beta-tubulin, GAPDH and SSU rDNA sequences. Taxon 54: 605–618.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nash, T. H. & Zavada, M. (1977) Population studies among Sonoran desert species of Parmelia subg. Xanthoparmelia (Parmeliaceae). American Journal of Botany 64: 664–669.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nei, M. (1978) Estimation of average heterozygosity and genetic distance from a small number of individuals. Genetics 89: 583–590.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nelsen, M. P. & Gargas, A. (2008) Dissociation and horizontal transmission of codispersing lichen symbionts in the genus Lepraria (Lecanorales: Stereocaulaceae). New Phytologist 177: 264–275.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'Donnell, K. & Cigelnik, E. (1997) Two divergent intragenomic rDNA ITS2 types within a monophyletic lineage of the fungus Fusarium are nonorthologous. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 7: 103–116.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'Donnell, K., Cigelnik, E. & Nirenberg, H. I. (1998) Molecular systematics and phylogeography of the Gibberella fujikuroi species complex. Mycologia 90: 465–493.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Opanowicz, M. & Grube, M. (2004) Photobiont genetic variation in Flavocetraria nivalis from Poland (Parmeliaceae, lichenized Ascomycota). Lichenologist 36: 125–131.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paetkau, D., Slade, R., Burden, M. & Estoup, A. (2004) Genetic assignment methods for the direct, real-time estimation of migration rate: a simulation-based exploration of accuracy and power Molecular Ecology 13: 55–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Palice, Z. & Printzen, C. (2004) Genetic variability in tropical and temperate populations of Trapeliopsis glaucolepidea: evidence against long-range dispersal in a lichen with disjunct distribution. Mycotaxon 90: 43–54.Google Scholar
Parker, P. G., Snow, A. A., Schug, M. D., Booton, G. C. & Fuerst, P. A. (1998) What molecules can tell us about populations: choosing and using a molecular marker. Ecology 79: 361–382.Google Scholar
Piercey-Normore, M. D. (2004) Selection of algal genotypes by three species of lichen fungi in the genus Cladonia. Canadian Journal of Botany 82: 947–961.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Piercey-Normore, M. D. (2006a) The lichen-forming ascomycete Evernia mesomorpha associates with multiple genotypes of Trebouxia jamesii. New Phytologist 169: 331–344.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Piercey-Normore, M. D. (2006b) Lichens from the Hudson Bay lowlands: diversity in the southeastern peatlands of Wapusk National Park, Manitoba. Canadian Journal of Botany 84: 1781–1793.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Piercey-Normore, M. D. & DePriest, P. T. (2001) Algal switching among lichen symbioses. American Journal of Botany 88: 1490–1498.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Printzen, C. (2002) Fungal specific primers for PCR-amplification of mitochondrial LSU in lichens. Molecular Ecology Notes 2: 130–132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Printzen, C. & Ekman, S. (2002) Genetic variability and its geographical distribution in the widely disjunct Cavernularia hultenii. Lichenologist 34: 101–111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Printzen, C. & Ekman, S. (2003) Local population subdivision in the lichen Cladonia subcervicornis as revealed by mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 intron sequences. Mycologia 95: 399–406.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Printzen, C., Ekman, S. & Tønsberg, T. (2003) Phylogeography of Cavernularia hultenii: evidence of slow genetic drift in a widely disjunct lichen. Molecular Ecology 12: 1473–1486.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Printzen, C., Lumbsch, H. T., Schmitt, I. & Feige, G. B. (1999) A study on the genetic variability of Biatora helvola using RAPD markers. Lichenologist 31:491–499.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pritchard, J., Stephens, M. & Donnelly, P. (2000) Inference of population structure using multilocus genotype data. Genetics 155: 945–959.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robertson, J. & Piercey-Normore, M. D. (2007) Gene flow in symbionts of Cladonia arbuscula. Lichenologist 39: 69–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scheidegger, C., Clerc, P., Dietrich, M., Frei, M., Groner, U., Keller, C., Roth, I., Stofer, S. & Vust, M. (2002) Rote Liste der gefährdeten Arten der Schweiz: Baum- und erdbewohnende Flechten. Bern: BUWAL.Google Scholar
Scheidegger, C. & Werth, S. (2010) Conservation strategies for lichens: insights from population biology. Fungal Biology Reviews. (In press).Google Scholar
Scherrer, S. & Honegger, R. (2003) Inter- and intraspecific variation of homologous hydrophobin (H1) gene sequences among Xanthoria spp. (lichen-forming ascomycetes). New Phytologist 158: 375–389.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scherrer, S., Zippler, U. & Honegger, R. (2005) Characterisation of the mating-type locus in the genus Xanthoria (lichen-forming ascomycetes, lecanoromycetes). Fungal Genetics and Biology 42: 976–988.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sérusiaux, E. (1989) Liste rouge des macrolichens dans la Communaute Europeenne. Liege: Centre de Recherches sur les Lichens, Departement de Botanique, Sart-Tilman, 4000 Liege, Belgique.Google Scholar
Seymour, F. A., Crittenden, P. D., Dickinson, M. J., Paoletti, M., Montiel, D., Cho, L. & Dyer, P. S. (2005a) Breeding systems in the lichen-forming fungal genus Cladonia. Fungal Genetics and Biology 42: 554–563.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seymour, F. A., Crittenden, P. D. & Dyer, P. S. (2005b) Sex in the extremes: lichen-forming fungi. Mycologist 19: 51–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Snäll, T., Pennanen, J., Kivistö, L. & Hanski, I. (2005) Modelling epiphyte metapopulation dynamics in a dynamic forest landscape. Oikos 109: 209–222.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stocker-Wörgötter, E., Elix, J. A. & Grube, M. (2004) Secondary chemistry of lichen-forming fungi: chemosyndromic variation and DNA-analyses of cultures and chemotypes in the Ramalina farinacea complex. Bryologist 107: 152–162.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stoddart, J. A. & Taylor, J. F. (1988) Genotypic diversity – estimation and prediction in samples. Genetics 118: 705–711.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taberlet, P., Fumagalli, L., Wust-Saucy, A. G. & Cosson, J. F. (1998) Comparative phylogeography and postglacial colonization routes in Europe. Molecular Ecology 7: 453–464.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thor, G. (1998) Red-listed lichens in Sweden: habitats, threats, protection, and indicator value in boreal coniferous forests. Biodiversity and Conservation 7: 59–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tønsberg, T., Gauslaa, Y., Haugan, R., Holien, H. & Timdal, E. (1996) The threatened macrolichens of Norway. Sommerfeltia 23: 1–258.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vasemägi, A., Nilsson, J. & Primmer, C. R. (2005) Expressed sequence tag-linked microsatellites as a source of gene-associated polymorphisms for detecting signatures of divergent selection in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). Molecular Biology and Evolution 22: 1067–1076.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wagner, H. H., Holderegger, R., Werth, S., Gugerli, F., Hoebee, S. E. & Scheidegger, C. (2005) Variogram analysis of the spatial genetic structure of continuous populations using multilocus microsatellite data. Genetics 169: 1739–1752.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wagner, H. H., Werth, S., Kalwij, J. M., Bolli, J. C. & Scheidegger, C. (2006) Modelling forest recolonization by an epiphytic lichen using a landscape genetic approach. Landscape Ecology 21: 849–865.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walser, J. C. (2004) Molecular evidence for limited dispersal of vegetative propagules in the epiphytic lichen Lobaria pulmonaria. American Journal of Botany 91: 1273–1276.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walser, J. C., Gugerli, F., Holderegger, R., Kuonen, D. & Scheidegger, C. (2004) Recombination and clonal propagation in different populations of the lichen Lobaria pulmonaria. Heredity 93: 322–329.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walser, J. C., Holderegger, R., Gugerli, F., Hoebee, S. E. & Scheidegger, C. (2005) Microsatellites reveal regional population differentiation and isolation in Lobaria pulmonaria, an epiphytic lichen. Molecular Ecology 14: 457–467.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walser, J. C., Sperisen, C., Soliva, M. & Scheidegger, C. (2003) Fungus-specific microsatellite primers of lichens: application for the assessment of genetic variation on different spatial scales in Lobaria pulmonaria. Fungal Genetics and Biology 40: 72–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weising, K., Nybom, H., Wolff, K. & Kahl, G. (2005) DNA Fingerprinting in Plants – Principles, Methods, and Applications. Boca Raton: Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Werth, S. & Sork, V. L. (2008) Local genetic structure in a North American epiphytic lichen, Ramalina menziesii (Ramalinaceae). American Journal of Botany 95: 568–576.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Werth, S., Wagner, H. H., Gugerli, F., Holderegger, R., Csencsics, D., Kalwij, J. M. & Scheidegger, C. (2006a) Quantifying dispersal and establishment limitation in a population of an epiphytic lichen. Ecology 87: 2037–2046.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Werth, S., Wagner, H. H., Holderegger, R., Kalwij, J. M. & Scheidegger, C. (2006b) Effect of disturbances on the genetic diversity of an old-forest associated lichen. Molecular Ecology 15: 911–921.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Werth, S., Gugerli, F., Holderegger, R., Wagner, H. H., Csencsics, D. & Scheidegger, C. (2007) Landscape-level gene flow in Lobaria pulmonaria, an epiphytic lichen. Molecular Ecology 16: 2807–2815.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wirth, V., Schöller, H., Scholz, P., Ernst, G., Feuerer, T., Gnüchtel, A., Hauck, M., Jacobsen, P., John, V. & Litterski, B. (1996) Rote Liste der Flechten (Lichenes) der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Schriftenreihe für Vegetationskunde 28: 307–368.Google Scholar
Yahr, R., Vilgalys, R. & DePriest, P. T. (2006) Geographic variation in algal partners of Cladonia subtenuis (Cladoniaceae) highlights the dynamic nature of a lichen symbiosis. New Phytologist 171: 847–860.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhang, D. X. & Hewitt, G. M. (2003) Nuclear DNA analyses in genetic studies of populations: practice, problems and prospects. Molecular Ecology 12: 563–584.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zoller, S., Lutzoni, F. & Scheidegger, C. (1999a) Genetic variation within and among populations of the threatened lichen Lobaria pulmonaria in Switzerland and implications for its conservation. Molecular Ecology 8: 2049–2059.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zoller, S., Scheidegger, C. & Sperisen, C. (1999b) PCR primers for the amplification of mitochondrial small subunit ribosomal DNA of lichen-forming ascomycetes. Lichenologist 31: 511–516.CrossRefGoogle Scholar