1 This finds exception when the direct or indirect responsibility of the state can be established, then the international human rights instruments become applicable.

2 For example, in the United States only 22 % of the rapists were a stranger to the victim: 4.5. Time Magazine 20 (1992).

3 For a short survey of sexual abuse of adult women in the Netherlands, see C. Oudijk and E. van der Wai, Vrouwen Veranderen: Ontwikkelingen in Feiten en Cijfers 103 (1985).

4 S. Brownmiller, Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape 32 (1986).

5 J. Laber, Bosnia: Questions about Rape, The N.Y. Rev. of Books, Mar. 25, 1993, at 4; L. Morrow, Unspeakable, Time, Feb. 22, 1993, at 30, 32.

6 Stalin, quoted by L. Morrow, supra note 5, at 31.

7 The following survey is by no means comprehensive; when conflicts are not mentioned, it does not mean that sexual abuse did not occur.

8 8 L. Friedman, The Law of War, A Documentary History 1060–1067 (1972); see also S. Brownmiller, supra note 4, at 57.

9 Judgement of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, at 1012.

10 Streit, April 1992, at 190, see also H. Wullweber, Kriegsverbrechen Vergewaltigung, Massenvergewaltigung; Krieg Gegen die Frauen 250 (1993).

11 S. Brownmiller, supra note 4, at 48–56.

12 L. Morrow, supra note 5, at 31.

13 Alexander Solzhenitsyn, quoted by L. Morrow, id., at 31.

14 A. Roberts and R. Guelff, Documents on the Laws of War 387 (1982); This description of international vs. national wars is derived from the common Art. 2 of the four Geneva Conventions of 1949 and Art. 1 of the second Additional Protocol of 1977. For a more in-depth description see section 3 of this article.

15 L. Morrow, supra note 5, at 32; S. Brownmiller, supra note 4, at 78–86; H. Wullweber, supra note 10, at 249.

16 The EC investigative mission into the treatment of muslim women in the former Yugoslavia places the number of victims at around 20.000: Report to EC foreign Ministers, January 1, 1993, Para. 14.

17 Amnesty International Report, Bosnia-Herzegovina: Rape and Sexual Abuse by Armed Forces, January 1, 1993; L. Morrow, supra note 5, at 32; The report of a Howard League Working Party, Unlawful sex: Offences, Victims and Offenders in the Criminal Justice System of England and Wales 40 (1985).

18 Streit, supra note 10, at 190.

19 The demands ranged from the latest model Japanese car, painted red, to the publication of unpublished poems: S. Brownmiller, supra note 4, at 83.

20 In the Netherlands only an estimated 10% of all rapes is reported to the police: C. Oudijk and E. Van der Wai, supra note 3, at 103–104. In the USA half of the women in a government survey said they would be more likely to go to the police if their name would not be used, Time Magazine 4.5. (1992).

21 C. Oudijk and E. Van der Wai, supra note 3, at 104.

22 S. Brownmiller, supra note 4, chapter 3; J. Laber, supra note 3, at 4.

23 Sexual abuse, or even rape, is for example not discussed in: H. Mc. Coubry, International Humanitarian Law; Y. van Dongen, The Protection of Civilian Populations in Time of Armed Conflict; F. F. Thomas and B. Cuvelier, Inleiding tot het Humanitair Recht; Schindler/Toman, The Laws of Armed Conflicts; nor is it mentioned in the chapters on laws of war in: A. Cassese, International Law in a Divided World; or: M. Akehurst, A Modern Introduction to International Law.

24 J. Laber, supra note 5, at 4.

25 C. Dales, Calling for Change - Through Darkness Towards Light, speech, June 10,1993 Ontwikkelingssamenwerking Informatie no. 21 at 5 (1993); I. van Teeseling, De Daad van de Overwinnaar, Elle 76 (1993); Meron, T., Rape as a Crime Under International Humanitarian Law, 87 AJIL 425 (1993).Google Scholar

26 Streit, supra note 10, at 190; H. Wullweber, supra note 10, at 249–250.

27 I. van Teeseling, supra note 25, at 73; J. Laber, supra note 5, at 4.

28 26 Women's World 27 (1991/1992); J. Laber, supra note 5, at 4; see also Report of the Team of Experts on their mission to investigate allegations of rape in the territory of the former Yugoslavia from 12 to 23 January 1991, UN Doc. E/CN4/1993/50, para. 49, at 71.

29 This became known as the ‘first wave’ of feminism: V. Randall, Women in Politics; An International Perspective 5 (1987).

30 Thelate 1960'searly 1970's witnessed a strong revival of feminism under the new combative name ‘women's liberation’: V. Randall, id., at 5–6.

31 6 News & Views 1 (1993).

32 T. Meron, supra note 25, at 424.

33 see also R. Negrine, Politics and the Mass Media in Britain 1 (1989).

34 Id., at 4.

35 see also id., at 163.

36 See for example, Mensenrechten Gelden ook Voor Vrouwen, De Telegraaf, December 14, 1992, and; M. van der Heijden, Verkrachting als een Middel om een Volk te Vernederen, Furore, February 1993, at 17.

37 See for example Women's World, supra note 28, at 14–15, 32–35.

38 See for example M. Van der Heijden, supra note 36, at 16; Opzij, Februari 1993, at 26.

39 see also H. Wullweber, supra note 10, at 248.

40 Y. Khushalani, Dignity and Honour of Women as Basic and Fundamental Human Rights 5 (1982).

41 Art. XLIV of General Orders 100 (i.e. the Lieber Code).

42 This Charter is annexed to the ‘London Agreement for the Prosecution and Punishment of the Major War Criminals of the European Axis’, 82 UNTS 280–311 (1945). On December 11, 1946, the General assembly unanimously affirmed ‘The principles of international law as recognised by the Charter of the Nuremberg Tribunal’ in GA Res. 95 (I).

43 Y. van Dongen, supra note 23, at 191–192; F. Thomas and B. Cuvelier, Inleiding tot het Humanitair Recht 115–121 (1990); I. Brownlie, Principles of Public International Law 581 (1990).

44 F. Thomas and B. Cuvelier, supra note 23, at 107–109; see also Draft Articles on State Responsibility, vol. II part 2 Yb. ILC 30–34(1980).

45 This principle is explicitely stated in Art. 91 of the first Protocol of 1977. The situation is different with regard to unlawful acts committed by rebel or insurgent groups. As a general rule, the state is not responsible for those acts, unless it can be established that the state did not do enough to try and prevent or suppress those acts. Victorious rebel groups can, however, be held responsible for the illegal acts or ommissions by their forces occuring during the course of the conflict; I. Brownlie, supra note 43, at 440, 452–455.

46 See section 1 of this article.

47 Hereinafter, the fourth Convention.

48 The other three conventions concern: (1) wounded and sick members of the armed forces on land, (2) wounded, sick and shipwrecked members of the armed forces at sea, (3) prisoners of war.

49 C. Cema, Human Rights in Armed Conflict: Implementation of International Humanitarian Law Norms by Regional Intergovernmental Human Rights Bodies, in F. Kalshoven and Y. Sandoz (eds.). Implementation of International Humanitarian Law 31(1989); A. Roberts and R. Guelff, supra note 14, at 170; F. Khushalani, supra note 40, at 45.

50 see also H. Wullweber, supra note 13, at 253–254; F. Khushalani, supra note 40, at 44; F. Meron, supra note 25, at 426.

51 Fourth Convention, Art. 146.

52 Fourth Convention, Art. 148.

53 C. Rüter, Enkele Aspecten van de Strafrechtelijke Reaktie op Oorlogsmisdrijven en Misdrijven Tegen de Menselijkheid 11 (1973).

54 One can question the importance of this provision since the convention is considered to be customary law and therefore binding on all states.

55 Fourth Convention, Art. 4(2); see also F. Thomas and B. Cuvelier, supra note 43, at 59; Y. van Dongen, supra note 43, at 121.

56 Hereinafter, the first Protocol.

57 A. Roberts and R. Guelff, supra note 14, at 387.

58 The categories mentioned in Art. 50 of the first Protocol roughly cover armed forces, militias and resistance movements.

59 For the upgrading of wars of national liberation to international conflicts, see A. Cassese, International Law in a Divided World 277–278 (1986).

60 First Protocol, Art. 86(1).

61 First Protocol, Art. 86(2).

62 First Protocol, Art. 93. see also supra note 48.

63 For a detailed discussion of the provisions of the first Protocol which are declaratory of international customary law, see T. Meron, Human Rights and Humanitarian Norms as Customary Law 62–70 (1989).

64 H. Wullweber, supra note 10, at 251.

65 Y. Khushalani, supra note 40, at 40; see also Y. Van Dongen, supra note 23, at 126; C. C. Cema, supra note 49, at 52.

66 Y. Khushalani, supra note 40, at 40–41; H. Burgos, The Application of International Humanitarian Law as Compared to Human Rights Law in Situations Qualified as Internal Armed Conflict, Internal Disturbances and Tensions, or Public Emergency, With Special Reference to War Crimes and Political Crimes in F. Kalshoven and Y. Sandoz (eds.), supra note 49.

67 Fourth Convention, Arts. 3(1)(a) and (1)(c) respectively.

68 see also Amnesty International Report, supra note 17, at 4.

69 F. Thomas and B. Cuvelier, supra note 23, at 97.

70 A. Roberts and R. Guelff, supra note 14, at 447; F. Thomas and B. Cuvelier, supra note 23, at 91–95; see also H. Burgos, supra note 66, at 4–5.

71 On the reasons for granting or withholding recognition of belligerent status, see A. Cassese, supra note 59, at 81–85.

72 F. Thomas and B. Cuvelier, supra note 23, at 97; A. Roberts and R. Guelff, supra note 14, at 447–448.

73 Hereinafter, the second Protocol.

74 Second Protocol, Art. 1.

75 Second Protocol, Arts. 4(2)a and (2)e respectively.

76 Y. Khushalani, supra note 40, at 66–68.

77 F. Kalshoven, Constraints on the Waging of War, 71–72 (1987).

78 For example the victims of a non-international conflict which is not covered by the second Protocol.

79 M. Piechowiak, Understanding Human Rights; Philosophical Inquiry, lecture at the Pozna human rights centre in Poland; see also: Preamble of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and of the Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.

80 P. van Dijk, Het Internationale Recht Inzake de Rechten van de Mens, in Rechten van de Mens in Europees en Mondiaal Perspectief 4 (1991); A. Cassese, supra note 59, at 287.

81 A. Cassese, supra note 59, at 289.

82 GA Res. 217 A (III).

83 On the status of the Universal Declaration, see: T. van Boven, Internationale Instrumenten en Procedures ter Bevordering en Bescherming van de Rechten van de Mens in Rechten van de Mens in Europees en Mundiaal Perspectief 44–55 (1991); Y. Khushalani, supra note 40, at 84–86.

84 GA Res. 2675 (XXV) of October 9, 1970; P. Van Dijk, supra note 80, at 4; Y. Khushalani, supra note 40, at 84–85; C. Cerna, supra note 49, at 32.

85 See for example Arts. 4 and 5(2) ICCPR; for an in-depth discussion of derogation of human rights, see: J. Hartman, Working Paper for the Committee of Experts on the Article 4 Derogation Provision, 7 Human Rights Quarterly 89–131 (1985). Some of the human rights are even considered to be ius cogens. The UN or its legal organs never adopted an authoritative list of ius cogens principles but one can confidently assert that the right to life and the right not to be subjected to torture or cruel and degrading treatment are among the rights that can not be modified or set aside by agreement between two states or a group of states. see also T. Meron, supra note 63, at 23,31,90; O. Schachter, International Law in Theory and Practice 339–340 (1991).

86 Art. 3 Universal Declaraton; Arts. 6(1) and 9(1) ICCPR.

87 Art. 5 Universal Declaration; Art. 7 ICCPR; Art. 2 Convention Against Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.

88 Art. 12 Universal Declaration; Art. 17 ICCPR.

89 On the problem of enforcing human rights, see N. Singh, Enforcement of Human Rights in Peace & War and the Future of Humanity, ch. 3 (1986).

90 O. Schachter, supra note 85, at 328.

91 These Charter-based procedures can be divided into public procedures (based on ECOSOC Res. 1235 (XLII) of June 6, 1967) and confidential procedures (based on ECOSOC Res. 1503 (XLVIII) of May 27, 1970).

92 For a more elaborate discussion, see T. van Boven, supra note 83, at 65–79.

93 By publishing its findings or adopting resolutions etc.: T. van Boven, supra note 83, at 74–75, 79.

94 A. Cassese, supra note 59, at 306.

95 T. van Boven, supra note 83, at 65; A. Cassese, supra note 59, at 305.

96 The so-called Treaty-based procedures.

97 Art. 19 CAT; Art. 16 ICCPR.

98 Art. 21 CAT; Art. 41 ICCPR.

99 T. van Boven, supra note 83, at 61; A. Cassese, supra note 59, at 304.

100 G. van Hoof, De Europese Conventie ter Bescherming van de Rechten van de Mens en de Fundamentele Vrijheden in Rechten van de Mens in Europeesen Mondiaal Perspectief 107 (1991).

101 Art. 22 CAT; Optional Protocol to the ICCPR.

102 The term ‘humanity’ refers not to the ‘human race’ but to the ‘quality’ or ‘concept’ of man; A. Cassese, supra note 59, at 291.

103 See supra note 42.

104 For a more in-depth discussion, see C. Rüter, supra note 53, at 34–52.

105 The ‘Statute of the international Tribunal for the prosecution of persons responsible for serious violations of international humanitarian law committed in the territory of the former Yugoslavia since 1991’ is annexed to the Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to Para. 2 of SC Res. 808 (1993), UN Doc. S/25704, May 3,1993.

106 Y. Khushalani, supra note 40, at 17.

107 GA Res. 260 A (III) of December 9, 1948, hereinafter, the Genocide Convention.

108 Art. 4(2) Statute Yugoslavia Tribunal; Art. II Genocide Convention.

109 Art. lib Genocide Convention.

110 See, e.g., H. Wullweber, supra note 10, at 254.

111 Killing (Art. 11a), inflicting such conditions of life as to bring about physical destruction (Art. He), preventing childbirth (Art. lid) and transferring children (Art. He).

112 See I. van Teeseling, supra note 25, at 76; Copelon, R., Call for Gender Justice in the Constitution of the War Crimes Tribunal March 21, 1993 at 2 (1993).Google Scholar

113 C. Cerna, supra note 49, at 31.

114 Kalshoven, F., The Present State of Research Carried Out by the English-speaking Section of the Centre for Studies and Research, 1986 The Application of Humanitarian Law 72–73 (1987).Google Scholar

115 C. Rüter, supra note 53, at 25; F. Kalshoven, supra note 114, at 75.

116 B. de Schutter and C. Eliaerts, De Bescherming van het Individu in Moderne Conflictsituaties 146 (1974); F. Kalshoven, supra note 114, at 74.

117 F. Kalshoven, supra note 114, at 100; H. Burgos, supra note 66, at 23.

118 F. Kalshoven, supra note 114, at 75.

119 K. Drze wicki. National Legislation as a Measure for Implementation of Inter national Humanitarian Law, in F. Kalshoven and Y. Sandoz (eds.), supra note 49.

120 Arts. 49/150/129/146, common to the Geneva Conventions, see also Art. 85 of the first Protocol.

121 K. Drzewicki, supra note 119, at 111–113; B. de Schutter and C. Eliaerts, supra note 116, at 158–159; F. Kalshovcn, supra note 114, at 88.

122 See also H. Burgos, supra note 66, at 23; F. Kalshoven, supra note 114, at 82.

123 Arts. 147/48/127/144, common to the Geneva Conventions; Art. 80 of the first Protocol.

124 C. Rüter, supra note 53, at 25.

125 This obligation is repeated in Art. 1 (1) of the first Protocol

126 The rationale behind this, as explained by the International Court of Justice, is that “these humanitarian obligations are, by their very nature, the concern of all states. In view of the importance of the rights involved, all states can be held to have a legal interest in their protection: they are obligations erga omnes”. Judgement of February 5,1970, Barcelona Traction case, second phase, I.C.J Rep. 1970, at 3.

127 H. Burgos, supra note 66, at 6; F. Kalshoven, supra note 114, at 98.

128 Art. 8/8/8/9, common to the Geneva Conventions; for the history of the system of Protecting Powers, see B. de Schutter and C. Eliaerts, supra note 116, at 137–141.

129 Protecting Powers usually also perform such normal diplomatic functions as issuing passports, forwarding mail etc.: F. Thomas and B. Cuvelier, supra note 23, at 136–137; B. de Schutter and C. Eliaerts, supra note 116, at 144.

130 See also F. Kalshoven, supra note 114, at 93.

131 Y. van Dongen, supra note 23, at 128,226; C. Cerna, supra note 49, at 36; B. de Schutter and C. Eliaerts, supra note 116, at 146; F. Thomas and B. Cuvelier, supra note 23, at 137.

132 B. de Schutter and C. Eliaerts, supra note 116, at 142; F. Thomas and B. Cuvelier, supra note 23, at 137; F. Kalshoven, supra note 117, at 95; A. Cassese, supra note 59, at 276–277.

133 Art. 10/10/10/11, common to the Geneva Conventions, Art. 5(4) of the first Protocol.

134 F. Kalshoven, supra note 114, at 96; B. de Schutter and C. Eliaerts, supra note 116, at 155.

135 B. de Schutter and C. Eliaerts, supra note 116, at 150.

136 F. Thomas and B. Cuvelier, supra note 23, at 139.

137 F. Kalshoven, supra note 114, at 93; B. de Schutter and C. Eliaerts, supra note 116, at 143.

138 B. de Schutter and C. Eliaerts, supra note 116, at 152.

139 See also the Call for Action From the Ad Hoc Women's Coalition Against War Crimes in the Former Yugoslavia, Para. 2 (1993).

140 B. de Schutter and C. Eliaerts, supra note 116, at 152.

141 First Protocol, Art. 90.

142 Art. 52/53/132/149, common to the Geneva Conventions; see also Y. Sandoz, Bilan de Recherches de la Section de Langue Francaise du Centre d'Etude et de Recherche de I'Academie, 1968 The Application of Humanitarian Law 69 (1987).

143 F. Kalshoven, supra note 114, at 91–92.

144 First Protocol, Art. 90(1).

145 First Protocol, Art. 90(2).

146 F. Thomas and B. Cuvelier, supra note 23, at 139; F. Kalshoven, supra note 114, at 92.

147 F. Kalshoven, supra note 114, at 99–100; B. de Schutter and C. Eliaerts, supra note 116, at 143,148–149.

148 Y. Sandoz, supra note 142, at 69.

149 See also F. Kalshoven, supra note 114, at 72.

150 H. Burgos, supra note 66, at 23; see also B. de Schutter and C. Eliaerts, supra note 116, at 149; F. Kalshoven, supra note 114, at 100; K. Drzewicki, supra note 119, at 113.

151 C. Rüter, supra note 53, at 22; B. de Schutter and C. Eliaerts, supra note 116, at 156–157.

152 Art. 49/150/129/146, common to the Geneva Conventions; Art. 85 of the first Protocol.

153 This is known as the ‘universality principle’: B. de Schutter and C. Eliaerts, supra note 116, at 161; C. Rüter, supra note 53, at 21; F. Kalshoven, supra note 114, at 86; A. Cassese, supra note 59, at 274–276; see also supra note 129.

154 B. de Schutter and C. Eliaerts, supra note 116, at 160.

155 See Para. 3.1.1.

156 F. Kalshoven, supra note 114, at 86–87; C. Rüter, supra note 53, at 22.

157 B. de Schutter and C. Eliaerts, supra note 116, at 161.

158 F. Kalshoven, supra note 114, at 87; H. Burgos, supra note 66, at 9.

159 See Para. 4.1, and supra note 121.

160 A. Swart, Een Internalionaal GerechlshofvoorJoegoslavie: Slap Vooruil of slag in de Luchl? April 18, 1993 NJCM Bulletin 377 (1993).

161 On extradition under general international law, see M. Akehurst, A Modem Introduction to International Law 107–109 (1987).

162 See supra note 152.

163 See also F.Thomas and B. Cuvelier, supra note 23, at 111–112; B.de Schutter and C. Eliaerts, supra note 116, at 160.

164 See for example Art. 2 of the Dutch Constitution.

165 See also Call for Action, supra note 142, Para. 4.

166 B. de Schutter and C. Eliaerts, supra note 116, at 169–170.

167 A. Swart, supra note 160, at 377; B. de Schutter and C. Eliaerts, supra note 116, at 162, 169–170.

168 P. Akhavan, Punishing Warcrimes in the Former Yugoslavia: A Critical Juncture for the New World Order, 15 Human Rights Quarterly 274 (1993).

169 C. Rüter, supra note 53, at 11–12, 15; B. de Schutter and C. Eliaerts, supra note 116, at 158.

170 P. Akhavan, supra note 168, at 273–274.

171 C Res. 808 (1993) of February 22, 1993, Para. 1.

172 Art. 2–5 Statute Yugoslavia Tribunal.

173 Art. 29(2) Statute Yugoslavia Tribunal. When the Yugoslavia Tribunal orders the extradition of a suspected war criminal, this order will prevail over national provisions concerning extradition according to Rule 58 of the Rules of Procedure of the Tribunal: Rules of Procedure and Evidence, adopted on February 11, 1994, UN Doc. IT/32, March 14, 1994.

174 Amnesty International accuses the UN of a double standard, of selectively enforcing human rights: Amnesty International Report, From Nuremberg to the Balkans: Seeking Justice and Fairness in the International War Crimes Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, April 1993, at 6.

175 P. Akhavan, supra note 168, at 287; A. Swart, supra note 160, at 375.

176 The Yugoslavia Tibunal is a good example; hostilities already began in 1990 but only at the end of 1993 judges for the Tribunal were nominated and then it took until Februari 1994 for the Rules of Procedure and Evidence to be adopted.

177 Procedural and Evidentiary Issues for the Yugoslav War Crimes Tribunal: Resource Allocation, Evidentiary Questions and Protection of Witnesses, 5 Helsinki Watch 3 (1993).

178 Amnesty International Report, supra note 174, at 1–2; A. Swart, supra note 160, at 378; P. Akhavan, supra note 168, at 283.

179 See also: P. Akhavan, supra note 168, at 289; B. de Schutter and C. Eliaerts, supra note 116, at 163, 167; C. Ruler, supra note 53, at 21; H. Wullweber, supra note 10, at 258; Amnesty International Report, supra note 174, at 4; S. Dockx et al., De Bestraffing van Inbreuken Tegen het Oorlogs-en het Humanitair Recht 17(1980).

180 P. Akhavan, supra note 168, at 275; B. de Schutter and C. Eliaerts, supra note 116, at 167; H. Wullweber, supra 10, at 258.

181 P. Akhavan, supra note 168, at 288.

182 On the so-called ‘rape trauma syndrome’, see G. Mezey, Reactions to Rape: Effects, Counseling, and the Role of Health Professionals, in M. Maguire and J. Pointing (eds.), Victims of crime: A new deal? 67–70 (1988); Z. Adler, Rape on trial 12–13 (1987).

183 See section 1 of this article.

184 Report of the Team of Experts, supra note 281, at 70–71, Para. 51; Z. Adler, supra note 182, at 3–4; S. Brownmiller, supra note 4, at 175; I. van Teeseling, supra note 25, at 76.

185 Experience shows that victims are more likely to confide in other women: Amnesty International, Memorandum to the United Nations: Seeking Justice and Fairness in the International War Crimes Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, April 1993, at 29.

186 R. Copelon, supra note 112, at 2–3; Unlawful sex, supra note 17, at 147, 164; see also Amnesty International Memorandum, supra note 185, at 29–30.

187 Helsinki Watch, supra note 177, at 8–9; Amnesty International Memorandum, supra note 185, at 28; see also Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power, GA Res. 40/34 of November 29,1985, Para. 6(d).

188 Unlawful sex, supra note 17, at 72; G. Mezey, supra note 182, at 70; Helsinki Watch, supra note 180, at 9; Amnesty International Memorandum, supra note 185, at 27–30; see also Basic Principles of Justice, supra note 187, Para. 4.

189 See also Amnesty International Memorandum, supra note 185, at 29; Helsinki Watch, supra note 177, at 9.

190 See also Helsinki Watch, supra note 177, at 10.

191 See also Helsinki Watch, supra note 177, at 8; Amnesty International Report, supra note 185, at 10–11.

192 R. Copelon, supra note 112, at 3; Helsinki Watch, supra note 180, at 8; Amnesty International Memorandum, supra note 188, at 28.

193 See also Amnesty International Memorandum, supra note 185, at 28; R. Copelon, supra note 112, at 3; Helsinki Watch, supra note 177, at 10; Z. Adler, supra note 182, at 164.

194 Art. 14(1) ICCPR.

195 Unlawful sex, supra note 17, at 61–62.

196 See also Amnesty International Memorandum, supra note 185, at 22.

197 See also Helsinki Watch, supra note 177, at 10.

198 Helsinki Watch, supra note 177, at 11.

199 See also Helsinki Watch, supra note 177, at 11; R. Copelon, supra note 112, at 3; Z. Adler, supra note 185, at 164.

200 See also Helsinki Watch, supra note 177, at 11–12; R. Copelon, supra note 112, at 3.

201 see also Z. Adler, supra note 182, at 163; R. Copelon, supra note 112, at 3.

202 Amnesty International Memorandum, supra note 185, at 22.

203 A preliminary hearing is sometimes used to decide whether there is sufficient evidence to indict the suspect.

204 See Z. Adler, supra note 182, at 1–18.

205 S. Brownmiller, supra note 4, at 386; M. Hirsh, Women and Violence 81–83 (1981); Z. Adler, supra note 185, at 1–18.

206 see also R. Copelon, supra note 112, at 3.

207 see also Helsinki Watch, supra note 177, at 13; R. Copelon, supra note 112, at 3.

208 see also Z. Adler, supra note 182, at 164–165.

209 Unlawful sex, supra note 17, at 41.

210 see also Helsinki Watch, supra note 177, at 9, 14.

211 See also Amnesty International Memorandum, supra note 185, at 30–3 l;R. Copelon, supra note 112, at 3.

212 see also A. Zemmali, Reparations for Victims of Violations of International Humanitarian Law, in Seminar on the right to restitution, compensation and rehabilitation for victims of gross violations of human rights and fundamental freedoms, 12 SIM Special 61 (1992).

213 Danieli, Y., Preliminary Reflections from a Psychological Perspective, in Seminar on the right to restitution, compensation and rehabilitation for victims of gross violations of human rights and fundamental freedoms, 12 SIM Special 205–206 (1992).Google Scholar

214 see also T. Meron, supra note 25, at 428.

215 See Report of the Secretary-General, supra note 105, Para. 108.

216 See supra note 173.