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Strict liability in Commonwealth criminal law

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 January 2018

G. L. Peiris
G. L. Peiris*
Affiliation:
University of Colombo, Sri Lanka, Law Commission of Sri Lanka
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Extract

It has been observed justly that few legal doctrines have given rise to so vigorous and sustained a conflict of judicial attitudes as the concept of strict penal responsibility. The theory of mens rea which preceded the origins of the common law, is ingrained in English criminal jurisprudence. An English court has asserted that ‘It is contrary to the whole established law of England (unless the legislation on the subject has clearly enacted it) to say that a person can be guilty of a crime in England without a wrongful intent’. In circumstances involving technical guilt bereft of moral blame English judges have looked askance at invocation of the criminal process. The American Law Institute has recently declared that ‘No principle is more broadly accepted than that the criminal law, involving as it does both punishment and condemnation, should be concerned with conduct that is morally reprehensible or culpable’.

Type
Research Article
Information
Legal Studies , Volume 3 , Issue 2 , July 1983 , pp. 117 - 145
Copyright
Copyright © Society of Legal Scholars 1983

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56. Watmore v Jenkins [1962] 2 QB 572; cf, for Australian law, Hardgrave v R (1906) 4 CLR 232 at 237, HCA, per Griffith CJ.

57. R v Woodrow (1846) 15 M & W 404; R v Stephens (1866) LR1 QB 702.

58. Sweet v Parsley [1970] AC 132 at 157, HL, per Lord Pearce.

59. Ibid.

60. R v Tolson (1889) 23 QBD 168 at 181, per Cave J.

61. Hearne v Garton (1859) 2 E & E 66; R v Sleep (1861) 30 LJ (MC) 170.

62. R v Banks (1794) 1 Esp 143 at 14–147, per Kenyon, Lord; Fowler v Padget (1798) 7 TR 509 Google Scholar; Kat v Diment [1950] 2 All ER 657 at 661, per Lord Goddard, CJ; R v Patterson [1962] 1 All ER 340 Google Scholar; Lockyer v Gibb (1966] Crim LR 504.

63. Roper v Taylor's Central Garages (Exeter) Ltd [1951] 2 TLR 284 at 288, per Devlin J.

64. R v Duke of Leinster [1924] 1 KB 311; Lomas v Peek (1947) 63 TLR 593 at 594; R v Cummerson [1968] 2 QB 534 at 542, per Widgery LJ.

65. Mullins v Collins (1874) LR 9 QB 292 at 295.

66. See the case cited at note 63, supra.

67. Harding v Price [1948] 1 KB 695 at 701.

68. Lolly's case (1812) R & R 237; R v Wheat and Stocks [1921] 2 KB 119.

69. Patel v Comptroller of Customs [1966] AC 356, PC.

70. Betts v Armstead (1888) 20 QBD 771; Goulder v Rook [1901] 2 KB 290.

71. Cotterill v Penn [1936] 1 KB 53; cf R v Maughan (1934) 24 Cr AR 130 at 132, per Avory J.

72. Woolmington v DPP [1935] AC 462.

73. Sweet v Parsley [1970] AC 132 at 158, HL, per Lord Pearce.

74. Mcleod v Buchanan [1940] 2 All ER 179; Alphacell Ltd v Woodward [1972] AC 824.

75. Evans v Dell (1937) 53 TLR 310 at 313, per Goddard J.

76. Debreuil v Quebec Liquor Commission (1945) 85 CCC 208 at 210 per Gaudet DM (Que KB, Appeal Side).

77. Hill v R (1973) 14 CCC (2d) 505 at 512, per Dickinson J (SCC).

78. R v Peterson (1970) 1 CCC (2d) 197 at 210, per McDermid JA (Alberta SC, AD).

79. R v Burkinshaw; R v Zora (1973) 12 CCC (2d) 479 at 480, per Clement JA (Alberta SC, AD); R v Slegg and Slegg Forest Products Ltd (1974) 17 CCC (2d) 149 at 155, per Ostler J (Prov Ct of BC); R v Malhotra (1980) 57 CCC (2d) 539 (Man Prov Ct).

80. R v Chapin (1979) 45 CCC (2d) 333 (SCC).

81. R v Le Blanc (1974) 21 CCC (2d) 118 at 120, per Grego J (Prov Ct of Algoma, Ont).

82. R v FADS of Ottawa Ltd and Kester (1979) 49 CCC (2d) 441 (County Ct of Ottawa-Carleton, Ont).

83. R v Kester (1981) 58 CCC (2d) at 221, per Eberle J (Ont HC of J).

84. R v King (1962) 133 CCC 1 at 17 (SCC).

85. Beaver v R (1957) 118 CCC 129 (SCC).

86. Where an offence is incorporated in a criminal code, proof of mens rea is prima facie necessary, but the legislature may depart from this principle in appropriate cases: R v Maginnis (1981) 64 CCC (2d) 430 (Gen Ses of the Peace, Distr of Algoma, Ont).

87. R v Rogo Farming Ltd, Corone and Maione (1980) 56 CCC (2d) 31 (Prov Ct, Distr of York, Ont); R v Highland Enterprises Ltd (1981) 60 CCC (2d) 78 (SC of PEI); R v Mac-Dougall (1981)60 CCC (2d) 137, (CA of NS); R v Gonder (1981) 62 CCC (2d) 326 (Yukon Territ Ct); R v Singh (1981) 63 CCC (2d) 156, (County Ct of Winnipeg, Man); R v Richard and walker (1981) 63 CCC (2d) 333, (CA of NB).

88. R v Novlan (1971) 9 CCC (2d) 85, (County Ct of Middlesex, Ont). R v Standard Meat Ltd (1972) 7 CCC (2d) 165, (DC of Sask); R v Cherokee Disposals & Construction Ltd (1973) 13 CCC (2d) 86, (Prov Ct of Algoma, Ont).

89. R v Pee-Kay Smallwares Ltd (1947) 90 CCC 129 at 137, (Ont CA).

90. R v Roliff (1973) 11 CCC (2d) 10 at 11, per Kelly JA. (Ont CA); R v Ooms (1973) 11 CCC (2d) 69 at 70, per Culliton CJS (Sask CA).

91. Heisler v R (1966) 49 CR 297 at 299–300, per MacQuarrie J (SC of NS).

92. R v FADS of Ottawa Ltd and Kester (1979) 49 CCC (2d) 441 at 455, per Martin, County Ct J (County Ct of Ottawa-Carleton, Ont).

93. R v Highland Enterprises Ltd (1981) 60 CCC (2d) 78 (SC of PEI).

94. Strasser v Roberge (1980) 50 CCC (2d) 129 (SCC).

95. R v Finn (1972) 8 CCC (2d) 233 at 236 per Schroeder JA. (Ont CA).

96. See the case cited at note 94, supra.

97. R v Hickey (1976) 29 CCC (2d) 23 at 25, per Estey CJHC (Ont HCJ).

98. R v City of Sault Ste Marie (1978) 40 CCC (2d) 353 at 365 ad fin, (SCC).

99. Ibid, at 368.

100. Bank of New South Wales v Piper [1897] AC 383 at 389.

101. R v Servico Ltd (1977) 2 Alta LR (2d) 388 (Alberta SC, AD).

102. R v City of Sault Ste Marie (1978) 40 CCC (2d) 353 at 363, (SCC).

103. Watts and Grunt v R (1953) 105 CCC 193 at 199, per Estey J (SCC).

104. R v Riddell (1973) 11 CCC (2d) 493 at 499, per Gagnon JA (Quebec CA); R v Coughlan (1974) 17 CCC (2d) 430 at 432, per Cavanagh J (Alberta SC, AD).

105. R v Pee-Kay Smallwares Ltd (1947) 90 CCC 129 at 137, per Rand J (Ont CA).

106. Beaver v R (1957) 118 CCC 129 (SCC).

107. R v Regina Cold Storage & Forwarding Co Ltd (1924) 41 CCC 21 at 32 (SCC).

108. Chisholm v Doulton (1889) 22 QBD 736 at 741, per Cave J. Re Jordison [1922] 1 Ch 440 at 465, per Younger LJ; Sambasivam v Public Prosecutor, Federation of Malaya [1950] AC 458 (PC).

109. R v City of Sault Ste Marie (1978) 40 CCC (2d) 353 at 373 (SCC).

110. R v Gillis (1974) 18 CCC (2d) 190 (CA of NS).

111. R v Brydon (1974) 21 CCC (2d) 513 (CA of Man).

112. R v Mclver (1965) 4 CCC 182 (CA of Ont); R v V. K. Mason Construction Ltd (1968) 3 CCC 62 (Ont HC); R v Custeau (1971) 6 CCC (2d) 179 (CA of Ont). But see R v Rendall (1975) 21 CCC (2d) 253 (Dist Ct of Algoma, Ont).

113. R v A. O. Pope Ltd (1973) 10 CCC (2d) 430 (CA of NB).

114. R v City of Sault Ste Marie (1978) 40 CCC (2d) 353 at 366 (SCC).

115. R v Trophic Canada Ltd (1980) 57 CCC (2d) 1 at 8, per McFarlane JA (CA of BC).

116. R v Kester (1981) 58 CCC (2d) 219 (Ont HC of J); R v Higgins (1981) 60 CCC (2d) 246 (SC of NS); R v MacDougall (1981) 60 CCC (2d) 137 (SC of NS).

117. R v Blackburn (1980) 57 CCC (2d) 7 (CA of BC).

118. R v Richardson (1981) 62 CCC (2d) 417 at 423, per Steele J (Ont HC of J).

119. Ibid.

120. R v Blackburn (1980) 57 CCC (2d) 7 (CA of BC). R v MaDougall (1981) 60 CCC (2d) 137 (SC of NS).

121. R v Allen (1979) 59 CCC (2d) 563 (Distr Ct of Thunder Bay, Ont).

122. R v Hickey (1976) 29 CCC (2d) 23 (Ont HC of J).

123. R v Rohan's Rockpile Ltd and Lowther (1981) 57 CCC (2d) 388, (CA of BC). Cf, for English law, R v Miller [1975] 2 All ER 974 and, for Australian law, Belling v Sullivan [1950] SASR 43 (SC of SA).

124. R v Chapin (1979) 45 CCC (2d) 333 (SCC).

125. R v Richardson (1981) 62 CCC (2d) 417 at 430, per Krever J (Ont HC of J).

126. The gravity of the consequences attendant on classification of an offence as one involving absolute liability is stressed in R v Brown (1970) 2 CCC (2d) 437 at 442, per Verchere J (SC of BC).

127. R v Rohan's Rockpile Ltd and Lowther (1981) 57 CCC (2d) 388 (CA of BC).

128. R v Pierce Fisheries Ltd [1971] SCR 5 (SCC).

129. Ibid.

130. R v Mueller (1974) 22 CCC (2d) 310 at 314, per Morrow J (Magistrate's Ct, Northwest Territ).

131. R v Zehrs Markets Ltd (1974) 20 CCC (2d) 107 at 110, per Mossop County Ct J (County Ct, Jud Distr of Waterloo).

132. R v Slegg and Slegg Forest Products Ltd (1974) 17 CCC (2d) 149, (Prov Ct of BC); cf R v Piepgrass (1959) 125 CCC 364 at 366 (Alberta SC, AD).

133. R v Fibre & Wire Industries (1973) 12 CCC (2d) 71 at 72, per Keith J (Ont HC); R v International Harvester Co of Canada (1974) 17 CCC (2d) 23 (Ont HC of J); R v Westeel-Rosco Ltd (1975) 27 CCC (2d) 467 (Ont HC of J). For English law, cf Smith v Cammell Laird & Co Ltd [1940] AC 242 at 264, per Lord Wright; Whitten v Amy and Navy Stores [1943] KB 580 at 586; Miller v William Boothman & Sons Ltd [1944] KB 337 at 339.

134. R v Trophic Canada Ltd (1980) 57 CCC (2d) 1 at 8, per McFarlane JA (CA of BC).

135. Ibid.

136. Ibid.

137. R v Allen (1979) 59 CCC (2d) 563 (Distr Ct of Thunder Bay, Ont).

138. R v Malhotra (1980) 57 CCC (2d) 539 (Prov Ct of Man).

139. R v Riddell (1973) 11 CCC (2d) 493 at 500, per Gagnon JA (Quebec CA).

140. R v Allen (1979) 59 CCC (2d) 563 (Distr Ct of Thunder Bay, Ont).

141. R v Hubbard (1973) 22 CCC 57 at 59, per Charles, Prov Ct J (Prov Ct, York Jud Distr Ont); R v Lambrinoudis (1978) 39 CCC (2d) 12 (Alberta SC, AD); R v Grottoli (1978) 43 CCC (2d) 158 (Ont CA).

142. R v Bruin Hotel Co Ltd (1954) 109 CCC 174 at 184, per Clinton Ford JA (Alberta SC, AD); R v Sam Consentino Ltd [1966] 1 CCC 79 (Ont CA); R v Statham (1974) 18 CCC (2d) 435 at 437, per Wong, Prov Ct J (Prov Ct of BC); R v Z-H Paper Products Ltd (1979) 52 CCC (2d) 91 (Ont HC of J).

143. R v Vedejs and Algoma Steel Corporation Ltd (1971) 5 CCC (2d) 552 (Prov Ct, Distr of Algoma, Ont); R v Imperial Tobacco Products Ltd [1971] 5 WWR 409 (Alberta SC, AD).

144. R v Hubbard (1973) 22 CCC 57 at 58 ad fin (Prov Ct York Jud Distr, Ont).

145. R v Allen (1979) 59 CCC (2d) 563 (Distr Ct of Thunder Bay, Ont).

146. R v Naugler (1981) 65 CCC (2d) 25 (SC, AD of NS).

147. See the case cited at note 144, supra.

148. Beaver v R (1957) 118 CCC 129 at 150 (SCC).

149. R v Kenny (1921) 36 CCC 333 (Ont SC); Lord's Day Alliance v A-G of British Columbia (1959) 123 CCC 81 at 94, per Rand J (SCC).

150. R v Mussalem (1968) 3 CCC 90 (Northwestern Territ CA).

151. R v Brydon (1974) 21 CCC (2d) 513 (Man CA).

152. R v King (1962) 133 CCC 1 (SCC).

153. R v Gregory, Choquette and Herbert (1973) 12 CCC (2d) 137 (Quebec Ct of Sess of the Peace, Montreal Distr).

154. R v Liquid Cargo Lines Ltd (1974) 18 CCC (2d) 428 (County of Wellington Prov Ct, Ont).

155. Hill v R (1973) 14 CCC (2d) 505 (SCC); R v Gillis (1974) 18 CCC (2d) 190 (SC, AD of NS).

156. R v Grottoli (1978) 43 CCC (2d) 158 (Ont CA).

157. Beaver v R (1957) 118 CCC 129 (SCC).

158. Hill v R (1973) 14 CCC (2d) 505 (SCC); R v Gillis (1974) 18 CCC (2d) 190 (SC, AD of NS); R v Rendall (1974) 21 CCC (2d) 253 (DC of Algoma); R v Hickey (1976) 30 CCC (2d) 416 (CA of Ont).

159. R v Piggly Wiggly Canada Ltd (1933) 60 CCC 104 (Man SC).

160. R v Brydon (1974) 21 CCC (2d) 513 (Man CA); cf R v Schneider (1958) 26 WWR 267 at 272, per Nay DCJ (Sask DC).

161. R v Fibre & Wire Industries (1973) 12 CCC (2d) 171 (Ont HC of J); R v Westeel-Rosco Ltd (1975) 27 CCC (2d) 467 (Ont HC of J).

162. R v Bruin Hotel Co Ltd (1954) 109 CCC 174 (Alberta SC, AD).

163. R v Slegg and Slegg Forest Products Ltd (1974) 17 CCC (2d) 149 at 155, Ostler, Prov Ct J (Prov Ct of BC).

164. R v G Tamblyn Ltd (1972) 6 CCC (2d) 471 (Ont CA). R v T Eaton Co Ltd (1973) 11 CCC (2d) 74 (County Ct, Jud Distr of York, Ont); R v Reader's Digest Association (1974) 19 CCC (2d) 507 (Quebec Ct of Sess of the Peace, Montreal Distr); R v Zehrs Markets Ltd (1974) 20 CCC (2d) 107 (County Ct Judges' Crim Ct Jud Distr of Waterloo); R v Lakaire Homes Ltd (1974) 21 CCC (2d) 53 (County Ct Judges' Crim Ct, County of York, BC).

165. R v Ford Motor Co of Canada Ltd (1979) 49 CCC (2d) 1 at 25, per Mackinnon ACJO (Ont CA).

166. R v Lambrinoudis (1978) 39 CCC (2d) 12 (Alberta SC, AD).

167. R v Monkman (1972) 7 CCC (2d) 77 at 83, per Morrow J (Northwest Territories Territorial Ct); R v Mueller (1974) 22 CCC (2d) 310 (Mag's Ct, Northwest Territories).

168. R v Fergusson (1972) 1 WWR 680 at 684, per Tyrwhitt-Drake County Ct J (County Ct of BC).

169. R v Pierce Fisheries Ltd [1971] SCR 5 (SCC).

170. R v Liquid Cargo Lines Ltd (1974) 18 CCC (2d) 428 at 430, per Howitt Prov Ct J (Prov Ct, County of Wellington, Ont); R v Power Tank Lines Ltd (1975) 23 CCC (2d) 464 (Prov Ct, Jud Distr of Peel, Ont); cf R v Chrokee Disposals & Construction Ltd (1973) 13 CCC (2d) 86 (Prov Ct, Distr of Algoma, Ont).

171. R u The Vessel ‘Aran’ (1973) 9 CCC (2d) 179 at 181, per Bull JA (CA of BC); R v The Vessel ‘Dilkara’ (1973) 15 CCC (2d) 90 (CA of BC).

172. R v Mussalem (1968) 3 CCC 90 at 102, per Parker JA (Northwest Territ CA).

173. R v Power Tank Lines Ltd (1975) 23 CCC (2d) 464 at 470–471, per Ord, Prov Ct J (Prov Ct, Jud Distr of Peel, Ont); R v Allied Towers Merchants Ltd [1966] 1 CCC 220 (Ont HC); cf R v Colgate-Palmolive Ltd [1970] I CCC 100 (Carleton County Ct, Ont); R v Firestone Stores Ltd (1971) 6 CCC (2d) 277 (CA of Ont).

174. R v Maginnis (1981) 64 CCC (2d) 430 (Gen Sess of the Peace, Distr of Algoma, Ont).

175. R v Capozzi Enterprises Ltd (1981) 2 CCC (3d) 385 (CA of BC).

176. Cf, for English law, Provincial Motor Cab Co Ltd v Dunning [1909] 2 KB 599.

177. R v McIver (1965) 4 CCC 182 at 189–190, per MacKay JA (CA of Ont).

178. R v McFall (1975) 26 CCC (2d) 181 (CA of BC); R v Cardinal (1977) 36 CCC (2d) 369 (Alberta SC, AD); R v Prue and Baril (1979) 46 CCC (2d) 257 (SCC).

179. R v Lock (1974) 18 CCC (2d) 477 (CA of Ont).

180. R v Pitre (1971) 3 CCC (2d) 380 at 382, per Maclean JA (CA of BC).

181. R v Hickey (1976) 29 CCC (2d) 23 at 36, per Galligan J (Ont HC of J); R v Lambrinoudis (1978) 39 CCC (2d) 12 (Alberta SC, AD); Strasser v Roberge (1980) 50 CCC (2d) 129 (SCC).

184. Report to the Minister of Justice, Our Criminal Law March 1976, p. 32.

183. Thomas v R (1937) 59 CLR 279 at 305, per Dixon J (HCA); Proudman v Dayman (1941) 67 CLR 536 at 540, per Dixon J (HCA).

184. Thorn v R (1937) 59 CLR 279 at 303, per Dixon J (HCA).

185. See the cases cited at note 183, supra.

186. See, for the law of Victoria, R v McMahon (1891) 17 VLR 335 (SC of Vict); R v Adam (1892) 18 VLR 566 (SC of Vict).

187. R v Reynhoudt (1962) 107 CLR 381 at 386, per Dixon CJ (HCA).

188. Proudman v Dayman (1941) 67 CLR 536 at 543, per McTiernan J (HCA).

189. Myerson v Collard and the Commonwealth (1918) 25 CLR 154 (HCA).

190. Proudman v Dayman (1941) 67 CLR 536 at 540–541, per Dixon J (HCA).

191. Anglo-American Oil Co v Manning (1908) 1 QB 536 at 541.

192. Maher v Musson (1934) 52 CLR 100 at 105, per Dixon J (HCA).

193. Ibid, at 104.

194. Thomas v R (1937) 59 CLR 279 at 302, per Dixon J (HCA).

195. Master Butchers v Laughton (1915) 19 CLR 349 at 350, per Griffith CJ (HCA), approving of Laughton and Coombs Ltd v Master Butchers Ltd [1915] SALR 3 at 12, per Murray J (SC of SA). For insistance on clear implication, see Crichton v Victorian Dairies Ltd [1965] VR 49 (SC of Vict); cf Bergin v Stack (1953) 88 CLR 248 at 275, per Kitto J (HCA).

196. Spooner v Alexander (1912) 13 CLR 704 at 708, per Griffith CJ (HCA); Poole v Wah Min Chan (1947) 75 CLR 218 at 227, per Latham CJ (HCA); Dowling v Bowie (1952) 86 CLR 136 at 141, per Dixon CJ (HCA).

197. See, for example, Queensland Criminal Code Act 1899, s. 24, Loveday v Ayre [1955] St R Qd 264 (SC of Q); Brimblecombe v Duncan [1958] Qd R 8 (SC of Q); cf Western Australia Criminal Code Amendment Act 1913, s. 24; Gibson and Gibson v Salter [1960] WAR 35 at 37–38, per Wolff SPJ (SC of WA).

198. Lyons v Smart (1908) 6 CLR 143 at 155–156, per Barton J (HCA).

199. Bond v Foran (1934) 52 CLR 364 (HCA).

200. Dowling v Bowie (1952) 86 CLR 136 at 150, per Williams and Taylor JJ (HCA).

201. Brown v Green (1951) 84 CLR 285 at 294–295 (HCA).

202. Ferrier v Wilson (1906) 4 CLR 785 at 792, per Griffith CJ (HCA).

203. Brown v Green (1951) 84 CLR 285 (HCA).

204. Laughton and Coombs Ltd v Master Butchers Ltd [1915] SALR 3 (SC of SA).

205. Hill v Donohoe (1911) 13 CLR 224 at 227, per Griffith CJ (HCA).

206. Norcock v Bowey [1966] SASR 250 at 268, per Napier CJ (SC of SA).

207. Myerson v Collard and the Commonwealth (1918) 25 CLR 154 (HCA).

208. Francis v Rowan (1941) 64 CLR 196 at 204, per Williams, J (HCA); cf Pankhurst v Porter (1917) 23 CLR 504 Google Scholar (HCA).

209. O'Sullivan v Fisher [1954] SASR 33 at 37, per Reed J (SC of SA).

210. Crichton v Victorian Diaries Ltd [1965] VR 49 (SC of Vict).

211. Bergin v Stack (1953) 88 CLR 248 at 262, per Williams ACJ, Fullagar and Taylor JJ (HCA).

212. R v Reynhoudt (1962) 107 CLR 381 at 385–386, per Dixon CJ (HCA).

213. R v Burles [1947] VLR 392 at 399–404 (SC of Vict); R v Broughton [1953] VLR 572 at 578 (SC of Vict); R v Bonnor [1957] VR 227 at 252 (SC of Vict).

214. R v Nundah (1916) 16 SR (NSW) 482 at 489–490 (SC of NSW).

215. Williams, G. L. Criminal Law: The General Part (2nd edn, 1961) pp. 201–205 Google Scholar, para 71; Edwards, J. L. J. Mens Rea in Statutory Offences (1955) pp. 48–50 Google Scholar.

216. Ianella v French (1968) 119 CLR 84 at 111, per Windeyer J (HCA).

217. Wilson v Inyang [1951] 2 KB 799.

218. Donnelly v IRC (NZ) [1960] NZLR 469 (NZSC).

219. Wilson v Chambers & Co Proprietary Ltd (1926) 38 CLR 131 at 142, per Isaacs J (HCA); Maher v Musson (1934) 52 CLR 100 at 104–105, per Dixon J (HCA); Thomas v R (1937) 59 CLR 279 at 303–304, per Dixon J (HCA); Proudman v Dayman (1941) 67 CLR 536 at 540, per Dixon J (HCA); Bergin v Stuck (1953) 88 CLR 248 at 261, per Fullagar J (HCA); Dowling v Bowie (1952) 86 CLR 136 at 141, per Dixon J (HCA); R v Reynhoudt (1962) 107 CLR 381 at 389, per Kitto J (HCA).

220. R v Larocque (1958) 120 CCC 246 at 247, per Sheppard JA (CA of BC); R v Chapin (1979) 45 CCC (2d) 333 (SCC).

221. R v Rushton (1964) 1 CCC 382 at 391, per Bissett J (SCC); R v Penner (1974) 16 CCC (2d) 334 at 337, per Hall JA (Man CA); R v Saxon (1975) 22 CCC (2d) 370 at 375–376, per Prowse JA (Alberta SC, AD).

222. R v Preshaw, Lutz, Leblanc and Bull (1976) 31 CCC (2d) 456 (Prov Ct Jud Distr of Peel, Ont).

223. R v Slater Steel Industries (1970) 2 CCC (2d) 523 (County Ct of Westworth, Ont).

224. R v Bruin Hotel Co Ltd (1954) 109 CCC 174 (Alberta SC, AD).

225. Barr v Civil Aviation Department [1965] NZLR 503 (NZCA).

226. Asiatic Petroleum Co Ltd v Lennard's Carrying Co Ltd [1914] 1 KB 419 at 432, per Buckley LJ.

227. R v Ewart (1905) 25 NZLR 709 at 729, per Williams and Edwards JJ (NZCA); Rooke v Auckland City Council [1980] 1 NZLR 680 at 689, per Holland J (HC of Auckland).

228. Keedy, E. R. ‘Ignorance and Mistake in the Criminal Law’ (1908) 22 Haw LR 75 at p. 84 Google Scholar.

229. Sweet v Parsley [1970] AC 132 at 165, HL, per Lord Diplock.

230. R v Reynhoudt (1962) 107 CLR 381 at 399, per Menzies J (HCA).

231. Proudman v Dayman (1941) 67 CLR 536 at 541, per Dixon J (HCA).

232. Kidd v Reeves [1972] VR 563 at 567 (SC of Vict).

233. Alphacell Ltd v Woodward 1972 AC 824 at 847, per Lord Cross of Chelsea.

234. Gherase v Boase [19591 VR 1 (SC of Vict); R v Reynhoudt (1962) 107 CLR 381 at 399, per Menzies J (HCA); cf C. Howard ‘Strict Responsibility in the High Court of Australia’ (1960) 76 LQR 547 at 565.

235. See the comment on R v Connatty (1919) 83 JP 292 made by the Supreme Court of New Zealand in R v Carswell [1926] NZLR 321.

236. R v Meek [1981] I NZLR 499 (NZCA).

237. Fraser v Beckett and Sterling Ltd [1963] NZLR 480 at 491, per Gresson P (NZCA); McCone v Police [1971] NZLR 105 (NZCA); Police v Creedon [1976] 1 NZLR 571 at 573, per McCarthy P (NZCA).

238. R v Ewart (1905) 25 NZLR 709 at 725–727, per Williams J (NZCA).

239. Boyes v Transport Department [1966] NZLR 171 at 172, per Wilson J (NZSC)

240. Auckland City Council v King [1977] I NZLR 429 (NZSC); Ministry of Transport v Burnetts Motors Ltd [1980] 1 NZLR 51 (NZCA).

241. Fraser v Beckett and Sterling Ltd [1963] NZLR 480 at 491, per Gresson P (NZCA).

242. Police v Creedon [1976] 1 NZLR 571 at 574, per McCarthy P (NZCA).

243. Ecclesfield v Chilman (1893) 11 NZLR 719 at 721, per Denniston J (NZSC).

244. See the case cited at note 242, supra.

245. See the case cited at note 241, supra.

246. Green v Police [1964] NZLR 1011 (NZSC); Foley v Transport Department [1969] NZLR 5 (NZSC).

247. Lang v McDonald [1968] NZLR 371 (NZSC); Police v Adam [1971] NZLR 695 (NZSC); Wilson v Ministry of Transport [1972] NZLR 651 (NZSC).

248. Pearson v Police [1966] NZLR 1095 at 1096, per McGregor J (NZSC).

249. R v Hawkins (1962) 2 Butterworths Fortnightly 470 (NZSC).

250. See, in regard to contravention of regulations governing the employment of children in factories, Garnet v Inspector of Factories [1927] NZLR 302 (NZSC); Inspector of Factories v MGV Stationery and Office Appliances [1964] NZLR 310 at 318, per Tompkins J (NZSC).

251. Helleman v Collector of Customs [1966] NZLR 705 at 708, per Hardie Boys J (NZSC).

252. Barr v Civil Aviation Department [1965] NZLR 503 at 505, per Perry J (NZSC).

253. See the cases cited at notes 249 and 251, supra.

254. D'Audnry v Marketing Services Ltd [1962] NZLR 51 (NZSC); Fraser v Beckett and Sterling Ltd [1963] NZLR 480 at 496, per North J (NZCA); Fisheries Inspector v Wareham [1974] 2 NZLR 639 at 644, per Mahon J (NZSC).

255. Flyger v Auckland City Council [1979] 1 NZLR 161 at 170–171, per McMullin J (NZSC).

256. R v Ewart (1905) 25 NZLR 709 at 725–727, per Williams J (NZCA).

257. Boyes v Transport Department [1966] NZLR 171 at 172, per Wilson J (NZSC); R v Strawbridge [1970] NZLR 909 at 915, per North P (NZCA).

258. Rooke v Auckland City Council [1980] 1 NZLR 680 at 694, per Holland J (HC of Auckland).

259. Ministry of Transport v Burnetts Motors Ltd [1980] 1 NZLR 51 at 57–58, per Cooke, J (NZCA); cf Police v Creedon [1976] 1 NZLR 571 (NZCA)Google Scholar.

260. R v City of Sault Ste Marie (1978) 40 CCC (2d) 353 at 369 (SCC).

261. Woolmington v DPP [1935] AC 462, HL.

262. Act XLV of 1860.

263. S. 79.

264. Ibid.

265. Ibid.

266. S. 72.

267. See, for example, Indian Penal Code, s. 40.

268. Indian Penal Code, s. 52; cf, for Burma, Bux Soo Meah Chowdry v R AIR 1938 Rangoon 350 at 351.

269. Kat v Diment [1950] 2 All ER 657.

270. S. 11.

271. Criminal Code 1960, s. 29(1)

272. S. 45.

273. Friedmann, W. Law in a Changing Society (1959) p. 197 Google Scholar.

274. See note 275, infra.

275. Wootton, Lady Crime and the Criminal Law (1962) p. 48 Google Scholar.

276. Wechsler, H. ‘The Model Penal Code’ in Modern Advances in Criminology (edited by J. L. J. Edwards) (1965) p. 73 Google Scholar.

277. R v St Margaret's Trust Ltd [1958] 1 WLR 522.

278. Hart, H. L. A. The Morality of the Criminal Law (1965) p. 13 Google Scholar.

279. Smith, J. C. and Hogan, B. Criminal Law (4th edn, 1978) pp. 93–94 Google ScholarPubMed.

280. Williams, G. L. op. cit p. 258 Google Scholar.

281. James & Son Ltd v Smee [1955] 1 QB 78.

282. R v Nicholson (1970) 8 CCC (2d) 161 at 166 (County Ct of Halifax, Nova Scotia).

283. R v Breau (1959) 125 CCC 84 (SC of NB); R v Pootlass (1977) 1 CR (3d) 378 (County Ct of BC).

284. R v Les-Mark Investments Ltd (1972) 6 CCC (2d) 383 (Ont CA); R v SGR Construction Co (1975) 28 CCC (2d) 154 (County Ct, Jud Distr of Peel, Ont).

285. R v Liquid Cargo Lines Ltd (1974) 18 CCC (2d) 428 (County of Wellington Prov Ct, Crim Div, Ont).

286. Alphacell Ltd v Woodward [1972] AC 824 at 847, per Lord Cross of Chelsea.

287. Jacobs, F. G. Criminal Responsibility (1971) pp. 119–120 Google Scholar.

288. Bratty v A-G for Northern Ireland [1963] AC 386 at 409, per Lord Denning. Cf Hill v Baxter [1958] 1 QB 277; Burns v Bidder [1966] 3 All ER 29.

289. Patient, I. ‘Some Remarks about the Element of voluntariness in Offences of Absolute Liability’ [1968] Crim LR 23 at p. 32 Google Scholar.

290. Campbell, I. D. ‘The Resurgence of Mens Rea’ [1956] 32 NZLJ 310 Google Scholar; cf Inglis, B. D. ‘Eclipsed Mens Rea Refulgent’ [1963] 1 NZLR 141 at p. 143 Google Scholar.

291. Hall, J. Principles of Criminal Law (1947) p. 343 Google Scholar.

292. See, for example, the Food and Drugs Act of England 1955, s. 113(1). For a discussion of the principles relating to identification of the delinquent third party in analogous contexts, see Malcolm v Cheek [1948] 1 KB 400; Moore v Ray [1951] 1 KB 98.

293. For examples of imposition of liability in these circumstances see Laird v Dobell [1906] 1 KB 131; Brentnall & Cleland Ltd v LCC [1945] KB 115.

294. Smith, M. and Pearson, A. ‘The Value of Strict Liability’ [1969] Crim LR 5 at p. 15 Google Scholar.

295. Howard, C. Strict Responsibility (1963) pp. 37–38Google Scholar.

296. Pound, R. The Spirit of the Common Law (1921) p. 52.Google Scholar

297. Seago, P. Criminal Law (1981) p. 86 Google Scholar.

298. Devlin, Lord Samples of Lawmaking (1962) p. 76 Google Scholar.

299. Sweet v Parsley [1970] AC 132 at 157.

300. R v Slater Steel Industries Ltd (1970) 2 CCC (2d) 523 at 527 (County Ct of Wentworth, Ont); R v Z-H Paper Products Ltd (1979) 52 CCC (2d) 91 at 95–97 (Ont HC of J).

301. Lim Chin Aik v R [1963] AC 160 at 174.

302. Kilbride v Lake [1962] NZLR 590 (NZSC).

303. Working Paper of the Law Reform Commission of Canada, Meaning of Guilt: Strict Liability (1974) p. 32.

304. Ibid.

305. Working Paper No 31 of the Law Commission of England, Codification of the Criminal law: General Principles: The Mental Element in Crime (1970).

306. Ibid.

307. Ibid.

308. Thomas v R (1937) 59 CLR 279 at 299, Per Dixon J.

309. Hawkins, Pleas of the Crown (1824) book 1, c. 7, s. 3 Google Scholar.

310. Bentham, J. Principles of Morals and Legislastion (1879) c. 12 Google Scholar, ss. 19 et seq.

311. R v Levett (1639) 79 ER 1064.