1 Sirros v Moore (1975) QB 118.Google Scholar

2 Stump v Sparkman 55 L ed 2d 331 (US Sup Ct 1978).

3 Boyo v Atake (1970 1 MWS NLR 197; see also, Boyo v A-G Mid-Western State (1971) 1 All NLR 342.Google Scholar

4 Randall v Brigham 74 US 523 (1868); Bradley v Fisher 80US 335(1871); Pierson v Ray 18 L ed 2d 288 (1967); Stump v Sparkman, supra.

5 McC v Mullan (1984) 3 All ER 908.Google Scholar

6 Awosanya v Board of Customs (1975) 1 All NLR 106; Egbe v Adefarasin (1985) 2 NWLR 549.Google Scholar

7 Pierson v Ray, supra, n 4; Mc Cv Mullan, supra, n 4, at p 916; Onitiri v Ojomo 21 NLR 19, and Awosanya v Board of Customs, supra, n 6. (The absolute immunities are in most respects covered by statute in Nigeria. See, eg s 88(1), Lagos State High Court Law; s 73(1), Magistrate Courts Law.).

8 Sirros v Moore; Stump v Sparkman; Egbe v Adefarasin; supra, notes 1, 2 and 3 respectively.

9 Holdsworth, , A History of English Law, vol 6, p 239; Buckley LJ in Sirros v Moore (1975) QB at 139 –140; Irikefe J (as he then was) in Boyo v Atake (1970) MWS NLR at 204. Contrast Thompson, ‘Judicial Immunity and the Protection of Justices’ (1958) 21 MLR 517 at 523.Google Scholar

10 (1666) 85 ER 84.Google ScholarPubMed

11 Similar words have been used by the Nigerian Supreme Court. See African Newspapers Ltd v Federal Republic of Nigeria (1985) 2 NWLR 137 at 159 (Oputa JSC); Anakwenze v Aneke (1985) 1 NWLR 771 at 778 (Uwais JSC).

14 See, eg Lord Templeman in McC v Mullan (1984) 3 All E at 929–‘there is no liability on a judge of the High Court acting as such.Google Scholar

13 Sirros v Moore, supra, 1 —per Lord Denning Mr at 140 and Buckley Lj at 136; Field J in Bradley v Fisher 80 US at 351–352; Martin Jnr J in Mills v Killebrew 765 F 2d 69 at 71 (6th Cir 1985).Google Scholar

14 State v Woleuer 26 NE 762 (Indiana 1891); Calhoun v Little 32 SE 86 (Georgia 1898); Pierson v Ray, supra, n 4; Stump v Sparkman, supra, n 2; Egbe v Adefarasin, supra, n 6 (Nnaemeka-Agu JCA in the Court of Appeal).

15 Section 45(2), Justices Protection Act 1979; Hammond v Howell (1677) 86 ER 1035; Re Marshalsea (1613) 77 ER 1027; De Grey CJ in Miller v Scare (1777) 96 ER at 674–675; Erle J in Taylor v Nesfield (1854) 118 ER at 1314.

16 Powell B in Gwinne v Poole (1693) 125 ER 858 at 861; Pike v Carter (1825) 130 ER 443; Calder v Hasket (1839) 13 ER 12; Lowther v Earl of Radnor (1806) 103 ER 28Google Scholar

17 Eg s 72(1), Lagos State Magistrate Courts Law; s 9, Customary Courts Law; Ajao v Alkali Amodu (1960) NR NLR 8.

18 Ezeani v Ekwealu (1961) All NLR 428; Ajao v Alkali Amodu, supra, n 17.Google Scholar

19 See Windham, v Clere, (1589) 78 ER 387; Taylor v Nesfield (1854) 118 ER 1312; Pease v Chaytor (1863) 122 ER 233; Kendillon v Maltby (1842) 174 ER 572; McCv Mullan (1984) 3 All ER 908 at 923 (Lord Bridge).Google Scholar

20 See, eg Re Green and the Hundred of Buccle-Churches Case (1589) 74 ER 294; Floyd v Barker (1608) 77 ER 1305; Ross v Rittenhouse 2 US 160 (Pennsylvania 1792); Lining v Benthorn 2 SCL 1 (South Carolina 1796).

21 Holdsworth, , History of English Law, vol 1, pp 213–214, vol 6, pp 234 –235.Google Scholar

22 Pollock, and Maitland, , History of English Law, vol 11, p 663. Damages could be awarded in such cases —ibid , p 664.Google Scholar

23 Holdsworth, HEL, p 235.

24 Ibid, at p 236.

25 Doyle, J in Mason v Melendez 525 F Supp 270 at 275 (D Ct Wisconsin 1981).Google Scholar

26 See Dicey's long exploded myth about every official from the highest to the lowest being amenable to the law for every unlawful act (A. V. Dicey, The Law of the Constitution, (10th edn) p 103.

27 Stewart J (dissenting) in Stump v Sparkman, supra, n 2, at p 346. The opinion of steward J therein was that a judge should not be free to so act.

28 Borrough, J in Richardson v Mellish (1824) 130 ER 294 at 303. The danger of too much reliance on public policy was highlighted by Lord Atkin in Fender v John Mildmay (1938) AC 1 at 10 –12.Google Scholar

29 Borrough J said in Richardson v Mellish, supra, n 28, that it is never argued at all, but when other points fail.

30 ee, generally, Powell, J in Imbler v Pachtman 47 L ed 2d 128 at 137 (US Sup Ct 1976).Google Scholar

31 [1908) 1KB 584 at 587.

32 See Mason v Melendez, supra, n 25, at 279.

33 See Jennings, , ‘The Tort of Liability of Administrative Officers’ (1936) 21 Minnesota L Rev 263 at 265.Google Scholar

34 18 L ed 2d 288 at 300, fn 4; referring to Jennings, op cit, at 271–272. The rationalisations as formulated by Douglas J are: (1) preventing the threat of suit from influencing decisions (2) protecting judges from liability for honest mistakes (3) relieving judges of the time and expense of defending suits (4) removing an impediment to responsible men entering the judiciary (5) necessity for finality (6) appellate review is satisfactory remedy (7) the judge's duty is to the public and not to the individual (8) judicial self protection (9) separation of powers.

35 See Jennings, , op cit, at 272. For a concise formulation, see Douglas J in Pierson v Ray (at 301) —‘it would be unfair to require a judge to exercise his independent judgment and then to punish him for having exercised it in a manner which, in retrospect, was erroneous. See also Fry LJ in Munster v Lamb (1883) 11 QBD 588 at 607.Google Scholar

36 McBride, J in State v Wolever 26 NE 762 at 764 (Indiana 1891).Google Scholar

37 [1979) AC 385 at 399.

38 Douglas J in Pierson v Ray, supra, n 4, at p 301.

39 For example, the Judicial Oath taken by Nigerian judges under the 1989 Constitution is as follows:‘… I will discharge my duties and perform my functions honestly, to the best of my ability and faithfully in accordance with the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria and the law, … I will not allow my personal interest to influence my official conduct or my official decisions … I will preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.’ (Schedule 7, 1989 Constitution).

40 ‘…Underlying this whole concept of absolute immunity is the concept of an alternative remedy’. Per curiam, in Nudeau v Texas Co 69 P 2d 593 at 594 (Mongna 1937) referring to Veeder, ‘Absolute Immunity in Defamation’, 9 Col L Rev 463 at 470. See also Field J in Bradley v Fisher 80 US 335 at 354; ‘Against the consequences of their erroneous or irregular action, from whatever motives proceeding, the law has provided for private parties numerous remedies, and to those remedies they must, in such cases, resort’; see also, Lord Robertson in Haggart's Trustees v Lord President (1824) 2 Shaws Rep 125 at 135.

41 See Jennings, supra, n 32, at p 272; Douglas J in Pierson v Ray, supra, n 16.

42 [1979) AC at 399.

43 Pulliam v Allen 80 L ed 2d 565 (US Sup Ct 1984); Slavin v Curry 574 F 2d 1256 (5th Cir 1978); Frizzell v Swafford 663 P 2d 1125 (Idaho 1983); Nigeria: Oyelade v Araoye & A-G Western Nigeria (1967) 1 All NLR 321; Ogor v Kolawole (1983) 1 NCR 342.

44 O'Reilly v Mackman (1982) 3 WLR 604 — Lord Denning MR at 617, Ackner LJ at 626 and O'Connor LJ at 629; Tughan v Craig (1981) 1 IR 245.Google Scholar

45 See, eg s 44 of the 1989 Nigerian Constitution (s 42, 1979 Constitution), and the interpretation given by the Privy Council to an identically worded Trinidadian provision in Maharaj v A-G of Trinidad and Tobago, supra.

46 Section s 2(5), Crown Proceedings Act 1947.

47 28 USC s 2680(a); Cromelin v US 177 F 2d (5th Cir 1949); Haslam v State 4 NYS 2d 59 at 62–63 (New York 1938); Calhoun v City of Providence 390 A 2d 350 at 358356 (Rhode Island 1978).Google Scholar

48 See Gee J in Sparks v Duval County Ranch Co 604 F 2d 979 at 980 (5th Cir 1979).Google Scholar

49 See Floyd v Barker 77 Er 1305 at 1306: ‘for if the judicial matters of record should be drawn into question … there will never be an end of causes, but controversies will be infinite…’ Dodd J in Tughan v Craig (1918) 1 Ir 245 at 257:‘If judge sit upon judge, where is it to end?… would it tend to decency or decorum, that even while I was restraining another judge I was preparing material for some other judge to restrain me?’ See also, Powell, J in Pulliam v Allen 80 L ed 2d 565 at 582.Google Scholar

50 [1989) 17 EG 68 at 80.Google ScholarPubMed

51 Emphasis added.

52 ‘The judge has no bargain with the parties before him. He pledges them no skill. His duties are to the state … litigants are not persons to whom judges owe a duty of care.’Per Lord Kilbrandon in Arenson v Casson (1975) 3 WLR 815 at 833. Also, Allen, J in Sweenq v Young 131 A 155 at 158. ‘Their obligation to do justice being owed to the state rather than to the parties coming before them…’ (New Hampshire 1925). Also, Lord Denning, Mr in O'Reilly v Mackman (1982) 3 WLR 608 at 616; Jennings, , supra, n 32, at 272.Google Scholar

53 See supra, n 22 and text; also, Holdsworth, , History of English Law, vol 5 at 159–160; Pollock, and Maitland, , History of English Law, vol 11, p 666.Google Scholar

54 See Maharaj v A-G of Trinidad and Tobago (1979) AC 385.

55 ‘… No man would execute the judicial office upon peril of being arraigned by action or indictment for every judgment he pronounces’ -pn Holt CJ in Groenvelt v Burwell 91 ER 343 at 344: ‘No man but a beggar or a fool would be a judge’— per Lord Robertson in Haggart's Trustees v Lord President (1824) 2 Shaws Rep 125 at 134 (quoting Lord Stair). See also, Lord Tenterden CJ in Ganett v Ferrand 108 ER 576 at 582.

56 [1980) AC 198.

57 Compare Lord Diplock in Saif Ali v Mitchell at 220. Ian Hunter QC did highlight the problems being faced by the legal, medical and other professions (both in the USA and in England) because of malpractice suits. See Hunter, ‘Professional Malpractice Claims and Indemnity Insurance: Time to Limit Liability?’ (Counsel, vol 1, no 3, Easter Term 1986), p 38 et seq. The problems range from the risk of ‘personal ruin’ for some ‘relatively minor act of negligence’ or error of judgment, to difficulties in obtaining professional indemnity cover. Two things are clear from this article: first, the predicament of these professionals is as a result of a rule comparable to absolute liability being applicable to them. Secondly, and more relevant in this particular context, although there was indication that some people might be inhibited in the performance of their duties because of the threat of liability, there was no suggestion that responsible people were abandoning, or reluctant to join, these professions.

58 Se supru, n 55.

59 See Barth, ‘Immunity of Federal and State Judges from Civil Suits: Time for a Qualified Immunity?’ (1977) 27 Case Western Reserve Law Rev 727 at 746 et seq..Google Scholar

60 See Robson, Justice und Administrative Law (Stevens & Sons Ltd, 1951) p 47.

61 604 F 2d 976 at 979–980.

64 Fox, J in Tuufe v Downes 13 ER 15 at 23–24.Google Scholar

63 Mayne J in Taafe v Downes, supra, n 62, at 20. See also Lord Norbury, at 33 —‘… vexatious litigation, upon every frivolous occasion’.

64 For other proponents of this rationale, see Crompton J in Fray v Blackburn (1863) 122 ER at 217; Lord Tenterden CJ in Garnett v Ferrand (1827) 108 ER 576 at 582; Lord Reid in Sutcliffe v Thackrah (1974) AC 727 at 736 (arbitrators); Lord Denning MR in Sirros v Moore (1974) 3 All ER 776 at 782; Field J in Randall v Brigham 74 US 523 at 536; Warren CJ in Pierson v Roy 18 L ed 2d 288 at 295; Powell J (dissenting) in Pullium v Allen 80 L ed 2d 565 at 582.

65 Tughan v Craig (1981) 1 IR 245 at 258.Google ScholarPubMed

66 See Brazier, ‘Judicial Immunity and the Independence of the Judiciary’ (1976) Public Law 397 at 408.

67 ‘The simple economic justification for damage remedies is that they impose the cost of harmful conduct on parties who might have avoided it, thus providing appropriate incentives for the exercise of care’; Jerry, L. Mashaw, , ‘Civil Liability of Government Officers: Property Rights and Official Accountability’ (1978) 42 Law and Contemporary Problems, 8 at 22.Google Scholar

68 Field, J in Bradley v Fisher 80 US 335 at 348.Google Scholar

69 Brazier, supra, n 66, at 408–409.

70 (1813) 13 ER 15 at 18.Google ScholarPubMed

71 54 F. Supp 926 at 934 (D Ct California 1944). See also, Fox J in Taafe v Downes (1813) 13 ER 15 at 24; Crompton J in Fray v Blackburn (1863) 122 ER 217; Lord Esher MR in Anderson v Conic (1895) 1 QB 668 at 670; Bramwell B in Scott v Stansfield (1868) LR 3 Exch 220 at 225; Holt CJ in Groenvelt v Burwell (1698) 91 ER 343 at 344–‘it would expose the justice of the nation…’; Field J in Randall v Brigham 74 US 523 at 536 (1868); and in Bradley v Fisher 80 US 335 at 347(1871); Rogers J in Yaselli v Goff 12 F 2d 396 at 399 (1926); White J in Stump v Sparkman 55 L ed 2d 331 at 343 (1978); Powell J (dissenting) in Pulliam v Allen 80 L ed 2d 565 at 582 (1984).

72 Taafe v Downes (1813) 13 ER at 18.Google Scholar

73 Immunity from suit is an aspect of the judges' individual independence. See Shetreet and Deschenes, Judicial Independence: The Contemporary Debate (Martinus Nijhoff, Netherlands, 1985) pp 723 and 631.

74 See O'Bara, , ‘Judicial Immunity or Imperial Judiciary’ (197879) 47 UMKCL Rev 81 at 94.Google Scholar

75 See Barth, supra, n 59. In the French and German systems the action is against the state and the state has the right to sue the judge at fault to recover damages paid to the victim. See Shetreet and Deschenes, supra, n 73, at 567 and fn 32; also, Jacoby, ‘Federal Tort Claims Act and French Law of Government Tort Liability: A Comparative Study’, 7 Vanderbilt L Rev 246 at 255.

76 Cappelletti, ‘Who Watches the Watchmen? A Comparative Study of Judicial Responsibility’, in Shetreet and Deschenes, Judicial Independence: The Contemporary Debate, p 556.

77 See generally, Sheetreet and Deschenes, supra, n 73, p 598 et seq.

78 (1813) 13 ER 18.Google ScholarPubMed

79 See also, Field, J in Randoll v Brigham 74 US 523 at 536 (1868); Hufstedler J in Donovan v Reinbold 433 F 2d 738 at 743 (9th Cir 1970).Google Scholar

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81 O'Bara, supra, n 74 at 81.

82 Forer, ‘Judicial Responsibility and Moral Values’ (1978) Hastings LJ 1641 at 1644–45.

83 (1863) 122 ER at 217.

84 Kelly, Cb in Scott v Stanfield (1868) LR 3 Exch 220 at 223.Google Scholar

85 Karibi-Whyte, Jsc in Egbe v Adefarasin (1985) 1 NWLR 549 at 567. See also, DeGrey, Cj in Miller v Seare 96 ER 673 at 674–675; Field J in Randall v Brigham 74 US 523 at 536 –‘For the sake of the public…’; Rogers J in Yaselli v Goff 12 F 2d 396 at 399; Warren CJ in Pierson v Ray 18 L Ed 2d 288 at 294. In Taafe v Downe 13 ER at 18, Mayne J went to the extent of saying that ‘honest’ and ‘good’ people will rather prefer immunity. This is an assumption which is, it is submitted, rather unlikely.Google Scholar

86 Arnold, J in Martinez v Winner 711 F 2d 424 at 436 (10th Cir 1985).Google Scholar

87 (1827) 108 ER 576 at 582.Google ScholarPubMed

88 See also, Learned Hand, Cj in Gregoire v Biddle 177 F 2d 579 at 581 (2nd Cir 1949); Goldberg J inMcAlester v Brown 469 F 2d 1280 at 1283 (5th Cir 1972).Google Scholar

89 Frank Way, ‘A Call for Limits to Judicial Immunity: Must Judges be Kings in their Courts?’ (1980) Judicature, 390 at 396.

90 Jennings, supra, n 32 at 272 —‘The mere possibility arising from the fact that judges, as the ones administering tort liability, have at least had no reason for being unfriendly toward their own immunity’.

91 See supra, notes 61–63 and accompanying texts.

92 See Holdsworth, A History of English Low, vol 5, pp 159–160.Google Scholar

93 (1677) 86 ER 1035 at 1036 – 1037.

94 On self-protection by judges of superior courts and their apparent lack of consideration for inferior court judges, see Sirros v Moore (1974) 3 All ER 776. Lord Denning MR at 783 said —‘But the superior courts were never so strict against one of themselves’; Ormrod LJ at 795 —‘The cases concerning judges of superior courts are replete with statements of policy; the cases involving inferior courts seem to be silent on policy and preoccupied with questions of jurisdiction.’

95 Lord, Kilbrandon in Arenson v Carson (1975) 3 WLR 815 at 832.Google Scholar

96 Starting with Lord Coke in Floyd v Barker (1608) 77 ER 1305.

97 The situation in Maharaj v A-G of Trinidad and Tobago was slightly similar.

98 See Boyo v a-G mid-Western State (1971) 1 All NLR 342.Google Scholar

99 Unreported Suit No LD/1396/75 (Lagos High Court).

100 See Sowemimo, Cjn in Odi v Osafile (1985) 2 NWLR 17 at 44.Google Scholar

101 772 F 2d 308 (7th Cir 1985).Google Scholar

102 Hink, , ‘Service-Connected versus Personal Fault in the French Law of Government Tort Liability’, 18 Rutgers L Rev 17 at 47.Google Scholar

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