Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-g8jcs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T16:36:18.460Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Lovers, Legal Strangers, and Parents: Negotiating Parental and Sexual Identity in Family Law

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 April 2024

Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

This is a study of meaning making and identity construction in child custody cases involving gay or lesbian parents. In it, I investigate the language of all such recorded decisions over the past 50 years, focusing on how judges—in interaction with the litigants before them—construct, negotiate, deny, and confirm the sexual and familial identities of the parents and would-be parents involved in these custody contests. Employing a constitutive framework and drawing on the social, scientific, and feminist literatures on sexuality, family, and law, I find that through multiple discursive processes, from self-representation to imposition to negotiation of new spaces of compromise, family law actors bring together sexual and familial statuses often treated as exclusive of each other.

Type
Papers of General Interest
Copyright
Copyright © 2002 Law and Society Association.

Footnotes

This research was supported by the National Science Foundation, Grant # SES-0004287. The author gratefully acknowledges the following people for their suggestions, comments, and ideas: Valerie Jenness, Ryken Grattet, Martha Umphrey, Jonathan Golderg-Hiller, Austin Sarat, Kitty Calavita, Susan Sterett, and Richard Leo.

References

References

Ali, Shiasta-Parveen (1989) “Homosexual Parenting: Child Custody and Adoption,” 22 Univ. of California Davis Law Rev. 1009–38.Google Scholar
Armanno, Benna F. (1973) “The Lesbian Mother: Her Right to Child Custody,” 4 Golden Gate Univ. Law Rev. 118.Google Scholar
Ball, Carlos A., & Pea, Janice Farrell (1998) “Warring with Wardle: Morality, Social Science, and Gay and Lesbian Parents,” Univ. of Illinois Law Rev. 253338.Google Scholar
Bar On, Bat-Ami (1993) “Marginality and Epistemic Privilege,” in Alcoff, L. & Potter, E., eds., Feminist Epistemologies. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Baum, Lawrence (1978) “The Judicial Gatekeeping Function: A General Analysis,” in Goldman, S. and Sarat, A.D., eds., American Court Systems: Readings in Judicial Process and Behavior. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman & Company.Google Scholar
Bayer, Ronald (1987) Homosexuality and American Psychiatry: The Politics of Diagnosis. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Becker, Howard (1963) Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance. London: Free Press of Glencoe.Google Scholar
Benkov, Laura (1994) Reinventing the Family: The Emerging Story of Lesbian and Gay Parents. New York: Crown.Google Scholar
Bigner, Jerry J., & Jacobsen, R. Brooke (1989) “Parenting Behaviors of Homosexual and Heterosexual Fathers,” 18 J. of Homosexuality 173–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Braithwaite, John (1989) Crime, Shame, and Reintegration. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, Wendy (1995) “Rights and Identity in Late Modernity: Revisiting the Jewish Question,'” in Sarat, A.D. and Kearns, T.R., eds., Identities, Politics, and Rights. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Burks, Kristine L. (1994) “Redefining Parenthood: Child Custody and Visitation When Nontraditional Families Dissolve,” 24 Golden Gate Univ. Law Rev. 223–58.Google Scholar
Cain, Patricia A. (2000) Rainbow Rights: The Role of Lawyers and Courts in the Lesbian and Gay Civil Rights Movement. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Calavita, Kitty (2000) “The Paradoxes of Race, Class, Identity, and 'Passing': Enforcing the Chinese Exclusion Acts, 1882–1910,” 25 Law & Social Inquiry 140.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Charlow, Andrea (1994) “Awarding Custody: The Best Interests of the Child and Other Fictions,” in Humm, S.R., Ort, B.A., Anbari, M.M., Lader, W.S., & Biel, W.S., eds., Child, Parent, and State: Law and Policy. Philadelphia: Temple Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Cox, Juliet A. (1994) “Judicial Enforcement of Moral Imperatives: Is the Best Interest of the Child Being Sacrificed to Maintain Societal Homogeneity?” 59 Missouri Law Rev. 775806.Google Scholar
Dalton, Susan E., & Bielby, Denise D. (2000) “‘That's Our Kind of Constellation’: Lesbian Mothers Negotiate Institutionalized Understandings of Gender within the Family,” 14 Gender & Society 3661.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Daly, Kathleen (1995) “Structure and Practice of Familial-Based Justice in a Criminal Court,” in Abel, R.L., ed., The Law and Society Reader. New York: New York Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Dubin, Steven C. (1998) “Gay Images and the Social Construction of Acceptability,” in Nardi, P.M. & Schneider, B.E., eds., Social Perspectives in Lesbian and Gay Studies: A Reader. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Eskridge, William (2001) “Equality Practice.” Presented at the Law and Society Association annual meeting 07 July, Budapest, Hungary.Google Scholar
Eskridge, William N. Jr., & Hunter, Nan D. (1997) Sexuality, Gender, and the Law. New York: Foundation Press.Google Scholar
Espeland, Wendy (1994) “Legally Mediated Identity: The National Environmental Policy Act and the Bureaucratic Construction of Interests,” 28 Law & Society Rev. 1149–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ewick, Patricia, & Silbey, Susan S. (1995) “Subversive Stories and Hegemonic Tales: Toward a Sociology of Narrative,” 29 Law & Society Rev. 197226.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ewick, Patricia, & Silbey, Susan S. (1998) The Common Place of Law: Stories from Everyday Life. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Falk, Patricia (1989) “Lesbian Mothers: Psychosocial Assumptions in Family Law,” 44 American Psychologist 941–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fineman, Martha (1993) “Our Sacred Institution: The Ideal of the Family in American Law and Society,” Utah Law Rev. 387403.Google Scholar
Fineman, Martha (1995) The Neutered Mother, the Sexual Family, and Other Twentieth Century Tragedies. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Fleming, Sharon J. (1997) “Custody Standards in New Mexico: Between Third Parties and Biological Parents, What Is the Trend?,” 27 New Mexico Law Rev. 547–78.Google Scholar
Foucault, Michel (1980) Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 19721977. New York: Pantheon.Google Scholar
Gavigan, Shelley A.M. (1998) “Legal Forms, Family Forms, Gender Norms: What Is a Spouse?” Presented at the Law and Society Association annual meeting, Aspen, CO.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goffman, Erving (1963) Stigma: Notes on the Management of a Spoiled Identity. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Green, Richard (1982) “The Best Interests of the Child with a Lesbian Mother,” 10 Bulletin of the American Association of Practicing Lawyers 715.Google ScholarPubMed
Green, Richard, Mandel, Jane Barclay, Hotvedt, Mary E., Gray, James, & Smith, Laurel (1986) “Lesbian Mothers and Their Children: A Comparison with Solo Parent Heterosexual Mothers and Their Children,” 15 Archives of Sexual Behavior 167–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guggenheim, Martin (1994) “The Best Interest of the Child: Much Ado About Nothing?” in Humm, S.R., Ort, B.A., Anbari, M.M., Lader, W.S. & Biel, W.S., eds., Child, Parent, and State: Law and Policy. Philadelphia: Temple Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Halley, Janet (1997) “The Construction of Heterosexuality,” in Warner, M., ed., Fear of a Queer Planet: Queer Politics and Social Theory. Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Harrington, Christine B., & Yngvesson, Barbara (1990) “Interpretive Sociolegal Research,” 15 Law & Social Inquiry 135–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harrison, Kate (1995) “Fresh or Frozen: Lesbian Mothers, Sperm Donors, and Limited Fathers,” in Fineman, M.A. & Karpin, I., eds., Mother in Law: Feminist Theory and the Legal Regulation of Motherhood. New York: Columbia Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Hitchens, Donna, & Price, Barbara (1978-79) “Trial Strategy in Lesbian Mother Custody Cases: The Use of Expert Testimony,” 9 Golden Gate Univ. Law Rev. 451–79.Google Scholar
Holsti, Ole R. (1969) Content Analysis for the Social Sciences and Humanities. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar
Hunter, Nan, & Polikoff, Nancy (1976) “Custody Rights of Lesbian Mothers: Legal Theory and Litigation Strategy,” 25 Buffalo Law Rev. 691714.Google Scholar
Johnson, Charles A. (1987) “Content-Analytic Techniques and Judicial Research,” 15 American Politics Q. 169–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kasravi, Niaz (2001) “Women Renegotiating Islamic Identities: A Study of the Iranian-American Diaspora.” Ph.D. diss., Dept. of Criminology, Law, and Society, Univ. of California, Irvine.Google Scholar
Katz, Jack (1988) Seductions of Crime: Moral and Sensual Attractions of Doing Evil. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Kinsman, Gary (1996) The Regulation of Desire: Homo and Hetero Sexualities, 2d Ed. Montreal: Black Rose Books.Google Scholar
Kort, Fred (1963) “Content Analysis of Judicial Opinions and Rules of Law,” in Schubert, , ed., Judicial Decision-Making. New York: Free Press of Glencoe.Google Scholar
Lemert, Edwin M. (1951) Social Pathology: A Systematic Approach to the Theory of Sociopathic Behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Lewin, Ellen (1993) Lesbian Mothers: Accounts of Gender in American Culture. Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Lin, Timothy E. (1999) “Social Norms and Judicial Decisionmaking: Examining the Role of Narratives in Same-Sex Adoption Cases,” 99 Columbia Law Rev. 739–94.Google Scholar
Logue, Patricia M. (2001) The Rights of Lesbian and Gay Parents and Their Children. Chicago: Lambda Legal Defense and Education Fund.Google Scholar
MacDougall, Bruce (2000) Queer Judgments: Homosexuality, Expression, and the Courts in Canada. Toronto: Univ. of Toronto Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marvell, Thomas B. (1978) Appellate Courts and Lawyers: Information Gathering in the Adversary System. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.Google Scholar
Mason, Mary Ann, & Quirk, Ann (1997) “Are Mothers Losing Custody? Read My Lips: Trends in Judicial Decision-Making in Custody Disputes—1920, 1960, and 1995,” 31 Family Law Q. 215–36.Google Scholar
McCann, Michael W. (1994) Rights at Work: Pay Equity Reform and the Politics of Legal Mobilization. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
McCann, Michael (1996) “Causal Versus Constitutive Explanations (Or, on the Difficulty of Being so Positive . . .),” 21 Law & Social Inquiry 457–82.Google Scholar
McIntosh, Mary (1968) “The Homosexual Role,” 16 Social Problems 101.Google Scholar
Mercer, Kathryn L. (1998) “A Content Analysis of Judicial Decision-Making: How Judges Use the Primary Caretaker Standard to Make a Custody Determination,” 5 William & Mary J. of Women & the Law 1149.Google Scholar
Merry, Sally Engle (1990) Getting Justice and Getting Even: Legal Consciousness Among Working-Class Americans. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Nardi, Peter (1997) “Friends, Lovers, and Families: The Impact of AIDS on Gay and Lesbian Relationships,” in Levine, M.P., Nardi, P.M. & Gagnon, J.H., eds., In Changing Times: Gay Men & Lesbians Encounter HIV/AIDS. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
O'Toole, Marianne T. (1989) “Gay Parenting: Myths and Realities,” 9 Pace Law Rev. 129–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parker, Stephen (1994) “The Best Interests of the Child: Principles and Problems,” in Alston, , ed., The Best Interests of the Child: Reconciling Culture and Human Rights. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Patterson, Charlotte (1995) “Lesbian Mothers, Gay Fathers, and Their Children,” in D'Augelli, A. & Patterson, C., eds., Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Identities Over the Lifespan: Psychological Perspectives. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Patterson, Charlotte, & D'Augelli, Anthony (1998) Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Identities in Families: Psychological Perspectives. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Peltz, Maxwell S. (1995) “Second Parent Adoption: Overcoming Barriers to Lesbian Family Rights,” 3 Michigan J. of Gender & Law 175–92.Google Scholar
Phillips, Scott, & Grattet, Ryken (2000) “Judicial Rhetoric, Meaning-Making, and the Institutionalism of Hate Crime Law,” 34 Law & Society Rev. 567606.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Polikoff, Nancy D. (1990) “This Child Does Have Two Mothers: Redefining Parenthood to Meet the Needs of Children in Lesbian-Mother and Other Nontraditional Families,” 78 Georgetown Law J. 459600.Google Scholar
Polikoff, Nancy D. (2000) “Raising Children: Lesbian and Gay Parents Face the Public and the Courts,” in D'Emilio, I., Turner, W.B. & Vaid, U., eds., Creating Change: Sexuality, Public Policy, and Civil Rights. New York: St. Martin's Press.Google Scholar
Rich, Adrienne (1980) Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence. Denver: Antelope Publications.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rivera, Rhonda R. (1987) “Legal Issues in Gay and Lesbian Parenting,” in Bozett, F.W., ed., Gay and Lesbian Parents. New York: Praeger.Google Scholar
Robson, Ruthann (1995) “Mother: The Legal Domestication of Lesbian Existence,” in Fineman, M.A. & Karpin, I., eds., Mother in Law: Feminist Theory and the Legal Regulation of Motherhood. New York: Columbia Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Rubenstein, William B. (1993) Lesbians, Gay Men, and the Law. New York: New Press.Google Scholar
Sarat, Austin, & Kearns, Thomas R. (1993) Law and Everyday Life. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sarat, Austin, & Kearns, Thomas R. (1995) Identities, Politics, and Rights. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Say, Elizabeth A., & Kowalewski, Mark R. (1998) Gays, Lesbians, and Family Values. Cleveland: Pilgrim Press.Google Scholar
Schneider, Carl E. (1991) “Discretion, Rules, and Law: Child Custody and the UMDA's Best-Interest Standard,” 89 Michigan Law Rev. 2215–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sedgwick, Eve Kosofsky (1997) “How to Bring Your Kids up Gay,” in Warner, M., ed., Fear of a Queer Planet: Queer Politics and Social Theory. Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Seidel, Anne I. (1994) “Custody Denials to Parents in Same-Sex Relationships: An Equal Protection Analysis,” in Humm, S.R., Ort, B.A., Anbari, M.M., Lader, W.S., & Biel, W.S., eds., Child, Parent, and State: Law and Policy. Philadelphia: Temple Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Seidman, Steven (1997) “Identity and Politics in a ‘Postmodern’ Gay Culture: Some Historical and Conceptual Notes,” in Warner, M., ed., Fear of a Queer Planet: Queer Politics and Social Theory. Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Sella, Carmen B. (1991) “When a Mother Is a Legal Stranger to her Child: The Law's Challenge to the Lesbian Nonbiological Families,” 1 U.C.L.A. Women's Law J. 135–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sheppard, Annamay T. (1985) “Lesbian Mothers II: Long Night's Journey Into Day,” 8 Women's Rights Law Reporter 218–46.Google Scholar
Simon, David R. (1999) Elite Deviance. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.Google Scholar
Stacey, Judith (1996) In the Name of the Family: Rethinking Family Values in the Postmodern Age. Boston: Beacon Press.Google Scholar
Stacey, Judith, & Biblarz, Timothy J. (2001) “(How) Does the Sexual Orientation of Parents Matter?” 66 American Sociological Rev. 159–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stack, Carol B. (1974) All Our Kin: Strategies for Survival in a Black Community. New York: Harper & Row.Google Scholar
Stein, Arlene (1997) Sex and Sensibility: Stories of a Lesbian Generation. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sullivan, Maureen (1996) “Rozzie and Harriet? Gender and Family Patterns of Lesbian Coparents,” 10 Gender & Society 747–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sullivan, T. Richard (1999) Queer Families, Common Agendas: Gay People, Lesbians, and Family Values. New York: Harrington Park Press.Google Scholar
Troiden, Richard (1998) “A Model of Homosexual Identity Formation,” in Nardi, P.M. & Schneider, B.E., eds., Social Perspectives in Lesbian and Gay Studies: A Reader. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Weston, Kath (1991) Families We Choose: Lesbians, Gays, Kinship. New York: Columbia Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Wray, Tsippi (1997) “Lesbian Relationships and Parenthood: Models for Legal Recognition of Nontraditional Families,” 21 Hamline Law Rev. 127–45.Google Scholar
Yngvesson, Barbara (1993) Virtuous Citizens/Disruptive Subjects: Order and Complaint in a New England Court. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Yngvesson, Barbara (1997) “Negotiating Motherhood: Identity and Difference in ‘Open’ Adoptions,” 31 Law & Society Rev. 3180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yoshino, Kenji (2000) “The Epistemic Contract of Bisexual Erasure,” 52 Stanford Law Rev. 353561.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cases Cited

A. v. A., 15 Or.App. 353, 514 P.2d 358 (1973).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adoptions of B.L.V.B. and E.L.V.B., 160 Vt. 368, 628 A.2d 1271 (1993).Google Scholar
Alison D. v. Virginia M., 155 A.D.2d 11, 552 N.Y.S.2d 321, 58 USLW 2548 (1990).Google Scholar
Bennett v. O'Rourke, WL 3464 (1985).Google Scholar
Bottoms v. Bottoms, 249 Va. 410, 457 S.E.2d 102 (1996).Google Scholar
Bowers v. Hardwick, 478 U.S. 186, 106 S.Ct. 2841, 92 L.Ed.2d 140 (1986).Google Scholar
Braschi v. Stahl Associates, 74 N.Y.2d 201 (1989).Google Scholar
Chicoine v. Chicoine, 479 N.W.2d 891, 60 USLW 2528 (1992).Google Scholar
Dailey v. Dailey, 635 S.W.2d 391 (1981).Google Scholar
D.L. v. R.B.L., 741 So.2d 417 (Ala.Civ.App. LEXIS 527, 1999).Google Scholar
Eldridge v. Eldridge, WL 994099 (Tenn. Ct. App., 1999).Google Scholar
Grant v. Grant, WL 80951 (Ohio App. 6 Dist., 1989).Google Scholar
Guinan v. Guinan, 102 A.D.2d 963, 477 N.Y.S.2d 830 (1984).Google Scholar
Hall v. Hall, 95 Mich. App. 614, 291 N.W.2d 143 (1980).Google Scholar
Henry v. Henry, 296 S.C. 285, 372 S.E.2d 104 (1988).Google Scholar
Hertzler v. Hertzler, 908 P.2d 946 (1995).Google Scholar
Immerman v. Immerman, 176 Cal. App. 2d 122 (1959).Google Scholar
In Interest of R.E.W., 220 Ga. App. 861, 471 S.E.2d 6 (1996).Google Scholar
In re Adoption of Baby Z., 247 Conn. 474 A.2d 1035 (1996).Google Scholar
In re Custody of H.S.H.-K., 193 Wis.2d 649, 533 N.W.2d 419, 64 USLW 2007 (1995).Google Scholar
In re Jane B., 85 Misc.2d 515 N.Y.S.2d 848 (1976).Google Scholar
In re Mara, 3 Misc. 2d 174 (1956).Google Scholar
In re Price v. Price, WL 338588 (Tenn.App., 1997).Google Scholar
Interest of Angel Lace M., 184 Wis.2d 492, 516 N.W.2d 678 (1994).Google Scholar
In the Matter of Adoption of Charles B., 1988 WL 119937 (Ohio App. 5 Dist., 1988).Google Scholar
In the Matter of J.S. & C., 129 N.J. Super. 486, 324 A.2d 90 (1974).Google Scholar
Jacobson v. Jacobson, 314 N.W.2d 78 (1981).Google Scholar
J.A.L. v. E.P.H., 453 Pa. Super. 78, 682 A.2d 1314 (1996).Google Scholar
J.L.P.(H.) v. D.J.P., 643 S.W.2d 865 (1982).Google Scholar
J.P. v. P.W., 772 S.W.2d 786 (1989).Google Scholar
Karin T. v. Michael T., 127 Misc.2d 14, 484 N.Y.S.2d 780 (1985).Google Scholar
Kathleen C. v. Lisa W., 71 Cal.App. 4th 524 (1999).Google Scholar
M.A.B. v. R.B., 134 Misc.2d 317, 510 N.Y.S.2d 960 (1986).Google Scholar
Marlow v. Marlow, 702 N.E.2d 733 (1998).Google Scholar
Matter of Adoption of Camilla, 163 Misc.2d 272, 620 N.Y.S.2d 897 (1994).Google Scholar
Matter of Adoption of Child by J.M.G., 267 N.J. Super. 622, 632 A.2d 550 (1993).Google Scholar
Matter of Adoption of Evan, 153 Misc.2d 844, 583 N.Y.S.2d 997 (1992).Google Scholar
Matter of Appeal of in Pima County Juvenile Action, 151 Ariz. 335, 727 P.2d 830 (1986).Google Scholar
Matter of Guardianship of Astonn H., 167 Misc.2d 840, 635 N.Y.S.2d 418 (1995).Google Scholar
McGuffin v. Overton, 214 Mich. App. 95, 542 N.W.2d 288 (1995).Google Scholar
Muller v. Oregon, 208 U.S. 412 (1908).Google Scholar
Nadler v. Superior Court In and For Sacramento County, 255 Cal. App. 2d 523 (1967).Google Scholar
Newsome v. Newsome, 42 N.C. App. 416, 256 S.E.2d 849 (1979).Google Scholar
N.K.M. v. L.E.M., 606 S.W.2d 179 (1980).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Padula v. Webster, 822 F.2d 97, 103 (D.C. Cir., 1987).Google Scholar
Roe v. Roe, 228 Va. 722, 324 S.E.2d 691 (1985).Google Scholar
Rowsey v. Rowsey, 174 W.Va. 692, 329 S.E.2d 57 (1985).Google Scholar
Scott v. Scott, 95 0816 (La. App. 1 Cir. 12/15/95), 665 So.2d 760 (1995).Google Scholar
S.N.E. v. R.L.B., 99 P.2d 875 (1985).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
State ex rel. Human Services Department, 107 N.M. 769, 764 P.2d 1327 (1988).Google Scholar
Thomas S. v. Robin Y., 157 Misc.2d 858, 599 N.Y.S.2d 377 (1993).Google Scholar
Thomas S. v. Robin Y., 209 A.D.2d 298, 618 N.Y.S.2d 356 (1994).Google Scholar
Towend v. Towend, 1976 Ohio App. LEXIS 6193 (1976).Google Scholar
Ward v. Ward, WL 491692 (1996).Google Scholar
Watkins v. United States Army, 847 F.2d 1329 (1988).Google Scholar
West v. Superior Court, 59 Cal. App. 4th 302, 69 Cal. Rptr. 2d 160 (1997).Google Scholar
Wolff v. Wolff, 349 N.W.2d 656 (1984).CrossRefGoogle Scholar