Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-rdxmf Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T18:13:49.992Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Judicial Rhetoric, Meaning-Making, and the Institutionalization of Hate Crime Law

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 April 2024

Scott Phillips  and
Ryken Grattet
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

In this article we examine how the concept of hate crime has been transformed in judicial discourse from a broad ambiguous category, which generated substantial controversy and opposition, to a focused determinate legal construct, which has been largely accepted as a legitimate legal practice. We track changes in judicial rhetoric across 38 appellate court opinions that consider the constitutionality of hate crime cases (1984-1999), and we propose a theoretical framework for analyzing the “settling” of legal meaning. A qualitative interpretive analysis demonstrates that the meaning of hate crime that emerges across the series of cases is much richer and nuanced than the collection of words contained in the statutes, and that the domain of hate crime has expanded across the series of cases to include a broader range of behaviors and mental precursors. Quantitative analysis shows that, over time, judges have developed a more economical and formulaic rhetoric for responding to petitioners' constitutional challenges to hate crime statutes and have converged around sets of arguments for negotiating challenges. We discuss the implications of these findings for traditional jurisprudential analyses, sociolegal research on judicial decisionmaking, and research on the social construction of deviance.

Type
Articles
Information
Law & Society Review , Volume 34 , Issue 3 , 2000 , pp. 567 - 606
Copyright
Copyright © 2000 by the Law and Society Association

Footnotes

An earlier version of this article was given as the Donald R. Cressey Memorial Lecture at the University of California, Santa Barbara, April 1997, at the American Society of Criminology meetings in San Diego, November 1997, and was awarded the 1997 LSA Graduate Student Paper Prize. For their contributions to this work we thank Ursula Abels Castellano, Tom Beamish, William T. Bielby, Dierdre Boden, Kitty Calavita, Randall Collins, Forrest A. Deseran, Laura Grindstaff, Valerie Jenness, Robert Kidder, Daniel Linz, Carolyn Marvin, Douglas Massey, Bill McCarthy, Chris Plantier, Dawn Robinson, Jim Spriggs, John R. Sutton, Susan Watkins, and Howard Winant.

References

References

Altschiller, Donald (1999) Hate Crimes: A Reference Handbook. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.Google Scholar
American Journal of Political Science (AJPS) (1996) Vol. 40, no. 4 (special issue).Google Scholar
Anti-Defamation League (1997) Hate Crimes Laws: A Comprehensive Guide. New York: Anti-Defamation League.Google Scholar
Becker, Howard (1963) Outsiders. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Belsley, D.A. E. Kuh, & Welsch, R. E. (1980) Regression Diagnostics: Identifying Influential Data and Sources of Collinearity. New York: Wiley.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bensinger, Gad (1992) “Hate Crimes: A New/Old Problem.” International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice 16: 115–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berger, Peter L. & Luckmann, Thomas (1966) The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.Google Scholar
Berk, Richard, Boyd, Elizabeth A. & Hamner, Karl M. (1992) “Thinking More Clearly about Hate-Motivated Crimes,” in Herek, G. & Berrill, K., eds., Hate Crimes: Confronting Violence against Lesbians and Gay Men. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Bittner, Egon (1969) “The Police on Skid-Row: A Study of Peace Keeping,” 32 American Sociological Rev. 669–715.Google Scholar
Boyd, Elizabeth A., Berk, Richard A. & Hamner, Karl M. (1996) “‘Motivated by Hatred or Prejudice’: Categorization of Hate-Motivated Crimes in Two Police Divisions,” 30 Law & Society Rev. 819–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brisbin, Richard A. Jr. (1996) “Slaying the Dragon: Segal, Spaeth and the Function of Law in Supreme Court Decision Making.” American Journal of Political Science 40(4): 1004–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bureau of Justice Assistance (1997) A Policymakers Guide to Hate Crime. U.S. Department of Justice. Washington, DC: GPO.Google Scholar
Caldeira, Gregory A. (1985) “The Transmission of Legal Precedent: A Study of State Supreme Courts,” 79 American Political Science Rev. 178–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caldeira, Gregory A. (1994) “Review of The Supreme Court and the Attitudinal Model.” American Political Science Review 88(2): 485–86.Google Scholar
California Department of Justice (1998) Hate Crime in California, 1997. Criminal Justice Statistics Center Sacramento, CA (http://www.caag.state.ca.us/cjsc/).Google Scholar
Chandler, Amanda (1996) “The Changing Definition and Image of Hackers in Popular Discourse,” 24 International J. of the Sociology of Law 229–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicourel, Aaron (1969) The Social Organization of Juvenile Justice. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Comment. (1993) “Hate Is Not speech: A Constitutional Defense of Penalty Enhancement for Hate Crimes,” 106 Harvard Law Rev. 1314–31.Google Scholar
Daniels, Arlene Kaplan (1970) “The Social Construction of Psychiatric Diagnosis,” in Dreitzel, H. P., ed., New Sociology No. 2. Macmillan: New York.Google Scholar
Dillof, Anthony M. (1997) “Punishing Bias: An Examination of the Theoretical Foundations of Bias Crime Statutes,” 91 Northwestern Univ. Law Rev. 1015–81.Google Scholar
DiMaggio, Paul, & Powell, Walter W. (1991) Introduction to W. W. Powell & P.J. DiMaggio, eds., The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Douglas, Mary (1986) How Institutions Think. Syracuse: Syracuse Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Edelman, Lauren. (1990) “Legal Environments and Organizational Governance,” 95 American J. of Sociology 1401–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Edelman, Lauren. (1992) “Legal Ambiguity and Symbolic Structures: Organizational Mediation of Civil Rights Law” 97 American J. of Sociology 1531–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Edelman, Lauren, & Suchman, Mark (1997) “Legal Environments of Organizations.” 23 Annual Rev. of Sociology 479–515.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Emerson, Robert M. (1969) Judging Delinquents: Context and Process in Juvenile Justice. Chicago: Aldine.Google Scholar
Ewick, Patricia (1992) “‘Postcards from the Edge’: Cutting Edge Issues in Sociolegal Research.” Plenary Address to the Graduate Student Workshop, Law and Society Association. Philadelphia, May 1992.Google Scholar
Fox, John (1991) Regression Diagnostics. Sage University Paper Series on Quantitative Methods in the Social Sciences, 07–079. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Friedman, Lawrence M. (1967) “Legal Rules and the Process of Social Change,” 19 Stanford Law Rev. 786–840.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Friedman, Lawrence M., Kagan, Robert A., Cartwright, Bliss & Wheeler, Stanton (1981) “State Supreme Courts: A Century of Style and Citation,” 33 Stanford Law Rev. 773–818.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gellman, Susan. (1991) “Sticks and Stones Can Put You in Jail, But Words Can Increase Your Sentence? Constitutional and Policy Dilemmas of Ethnic Intimidation Laws,” 39 UCLA Law Rev. 333.Google Scholar
Giddens, Anthony (1984) The Constitution of Society: Outline of the Theory of Structuration. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Goldberger, David (1992-1993) “Hate Crime Laws and Their Impact on the First Amendment,” Annual Survey of American Law 569.Google Scholar
Grattet, Ryken, Jenness, Valerie & Curry, Theodore (1998) “The Homogenization and Differentiation of Hate Crime Law in the U.S. 1978-1995: An Analysis of Innovation and Diffusion in the Criminalization of Bigotry,” 63 American Sociological Rev. 286–307.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gusfield, Joseph (1963) Symbolic Crusade: Status Politics and the American Temperance Movement. Urbana, IL: Univ. of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Gusfield, Joseph (1981). The Culture of Public Problems: Thinking-Driving and the Symbolic Order. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Heimer, Carol (1999) “Competing Institutions: Law, Medicine, and Family in Neonatal Intensive Care,” Law & Society Rev. 17–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herek, Gregory M., Gillis, J. Roy & Cogan, Jeanine C. (1999) “Psychological Sequelae of Hate Crime Victimization, among Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Adults,” J. of Consulting and Clinical Pyschology 67(6): 945–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jacobs, James B. (1993) “The Emergence and Implications of American Hate Crime Jurisprudence,” 22 Israel Yearbook on Human Rights 113–39.Google Scholar
Jacobs, James. B., & Potter, Kimberly (1998) Hate Crimes: Criminal Law and Identity Politics. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jacobs, James B., & Eisler, Barry (1993) “The Hate Crime Statistics Act of 1990,” 29 Criminal Law Bulletin 99–123.Google Scholar
Jenness, Valerie (1995) “Social Movement Growth, Domain Expansion, and Framing Processes: The Gay/Lesbian Movement and Violence Against Gays and Lesbians as a Social Problem.” Social Problems 42 (1): 145–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jenness, Valerie, & Broad, Kendal (1997) Hate Crimes: New Social Movements and the Politics of Violence. Hawthorne, NY: Aldine deGruyter.Google Scholar
Jenness, Valerie, & Grattet, Ryken (1996) “The Criminalization of Hate: A Comparison of Structural and Polity Influences on the Passage of Bias Crime Legislation in the United States,” 39 Sociological Perspectives 129–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jepperson, Ronald (1991) “Institutions, Institutional Effects, and Institutionalism,” in Powell, W. W., & DiMaggio, P. J., eds., The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Justice, J. Steven (1993) “Ethnic Intimidation Statutes Post-R.A.V: Will They Withstand Constitutional Scrutiny?” 62 Univ. of Cincinnati Law Rev. 113–71.Google Scholar
Kelman, Mark (1981) “Interpretive Construction in Substantive Criminal Law,” 33 Stanford Law Rev. 591–674.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kitsuse, John (1962) “Societal Reaction to Deviant Behavior: Problems of Theory and Method,” 9 Social Problems 247–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knight, Jack and Epstein, Lee. (1996) “The Norm of Stare Decisis” American Journal of Political Science 40(4): 1018–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lawrence, Frederick. (1999) Punishing Hate: Bias Crimes under American Law. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lemert, Edwin M. (1951) Social Pathology. New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Levin, Jack, & McDevit, Jack. (1993) Hate Crimes: The Rising Tide of Bigotry and Bloodshed. New York: Plenum.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maroney, Terry A. (1998) “The Struggle Against Hate Crime: Movement at a Crossroads,” 73 New York Univ. Law Rev. 564–620.Google Scholar
McCleary, Richard (1977) “How Parole Officers Use Records,” 24 Social Problems 576–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mertz, Elizabeth (1994) “A New Social Constructionism for Sociolegal Studies,” Law & Society Rev. 1243–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mitchell, Timothy (1990) “Everyday Metaphors of Power,” 19 Theory & Society 545–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morsch, James (1991) The Problem of Motive in Hate Crimes—The Argument Against Presumptions of Racial Motivation.” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 82 (3): 659–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neter, John, Wasserman, William & Kutner, Michael H. (1985) Applied Linear Statistical Models: Regression, Analysis of Variance, and Experimental Designs, 2d Ed. Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin.Google Scholar
Pfohl, Stephen (1977) “The Discovery of Child Abuse,” 24 Social Problems 310–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pfohl, Stephen (1994) Images of Deviance and Social Control: A Sociological History, 2d Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Rosenberg, Gerald N. 1994. “Remarks, Symposium on The Supreme Court and the Attitudinal Model.” Law and Courts: Newsletter of the Law and Courts Section of the American Political Science Association 4: 6–8.Google Scholar
Rumble, Wilfrid Jr. (1968) American Legal Realism. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Sarat, Austin, & Silbey, Susan S. (1988) “The Pull of the Policy Audience,” Law & Policy 10:97–166.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scheff, Thomas J., & Culver, Daniel M. (1964) “The Societal Reaction to Deviance: Ascriptive Elements in Psychiatric Screening of Mental Patients in a Midwestern State,” 11 Social Problems 401–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schultz, Vicki (1998) “Reconceptualizing Sexual Harassment,” 107 Yale Law Rev. 1755–1878.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schutz, Alfred (1967) The Phenomenology of the Social World. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press.Google Scholar
Segal, Jeffrey A., & Spaeth, Harold J. (1993) The Supreme Court and the Attitudinal Model. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Segal, Jeffrey A., & Spaeth, Harold J. (1996). “The Influence of Stare Decisis on the Votes of United States Supreme Court Justices.” American Journal of Political Science 40: 971-1003.Google Scholar
Segal, Jeffrey A., Epstein, Lee, Cameron, Charles M. & Spaeth, Harold J. (1995) “Ideological Values and the Votes of U.S. Supreme Court Justices Revisted,” 57 J. of Politics 812–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sewell, William H. (1992) “A Theory of Structure—Duality, Agency, and Transformation.” American Journal of Sociology 98 (1):1–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Siegelman, Peter and Donohue, John (1990) “Studying the Iceberg from its tip: A Comparison of Published and Unpublished Employment Discrimination Cases.” Law & Society Review 24(5):1133–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Snow, David A., Burke Rocheford, E. Jr., Worden, Steven K. & Benford, Robert (1986) “Frame Alignment Processes, Micromobilization, and Movement Participation,” 51 American Sociological Rev. 464–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spaeth, Harold J. (1995) “The Attitudinal Model.” In Lee Epstein (ed.) Contemplating Courts. Washington, DC: CQ Press.Google Scholar
Spector, Malcolm, & Kitsuse, John (1977) Constructing Social Problems. Menlo Park, CA: Benjamin/Cummings.Google Scholar
Strang, David, & Meyer, John W. (1993) “Institutional Conditions for Diffusion,” 22 Theory & Society 487–512.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sudnow, David (1965) “Normal Crimes: Sociological Features of the Penal Code in a Public Defender Office,” 12 Social Problems 255–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sutton, John R., Dobbin, Frank, Meyer, John W. & Scott, W. Richard (1995) “The Legalization of the Workplace,” American J. of Sociology 944–71.Google Scholar
Swidler, Ann (1985) “Culture in action: Symbols and strategies.” American Sociological Review. 56: 665–78.Google Scholar
Sykes, Gresham, & Matza, David (1957) “Techniques of Neutralization: A Theory of Delinquency,” 22 American Sociological Review 666–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tolbert, Pamela, & Zucker, Lynne G. (1996) “The Institutionalization of Institutional Theory,” in Clegg, S. R., Hardy, C. & Nord, W. R., eds., The Handbook of Organization Studies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Bureau of Justice Statistics U.S. Department of Justice (1998) State Court Processing Statistics, 1990, 1992, and 1994: Felony Defendants in Large Urban Counties (computer file). Conducted by Pretrial Services Resource Center. ICPSR ed., Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political & Social Research (producer and distributor): Inter-university Consortium for Political & Social Research (producer and distributor).Google Scholar
Wahlbeck, Paul J. (1998) “The Development of a Legal Rule: The Federal Common Law of Public Nuisance,” 32 Law & Society Rev. 613–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walker, Samuel (1994) Hate Speech: The History of an American Controversy. Lincoln: Univ. of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar
Walsh, David (1997) “On the Meaning and Pattern of Legal Citations: Evidence from State Wrongful Discharge Precedent,” 31 Law & Society Rev. 337–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waxman, Barbara Faye (1991) “Hatred: The Unacknowledged Dimension in Violence Against Disabled People,” Sexuality & Disability 185–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weissbourd, Bernard, & Mertz, Elizabeth (1985) “Rule Centrism Versus Legal Creativity: The Skewing of Legal Ideology Through Language,” 19 Law & Society Rev. 623–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, Halbert (1980) “A Heteroskedasticity-Consistent Covariance Estimator and a Direct Test for Heterskedasticity,” 48 Econometrica 817–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wiseman, Jacqueline P. (1970) Stations of the Lost: The Treatment of Skid Row Alcoholics. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Zucker, Lynne G. (1991) “The Role of Institutionalization in Cultural Persistence,” in Powell, W. W. & DiMaggio, P. J., eds., The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

Hate Crime Cases Cited

1.State v. Beebe, 67 Ore. App. 738; 680 P.2d 11 (1984).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
2.People v. Grupe, 141 Misc. 2d 6; 532 N.Y.S.2d 815; 1988 N.Y. Misc. LEXIS 583 (1988).Google Scholar
3.State v. Mitchell, 163 Wis. 2d 652; 473 N.W.2d 1; 1991 Wisc. App. LEXIS 906 (1991).Google Scholar
4.State v. Hendrix, 107 Ore. App. 734; 813 P.2d 1115; 1991 Ore. App. LEXIS 1014 (1991).Google Scholar
5.People v. Lashley, 1 Cal. App. 4th 938; 1991 Cal. App. LEXIS 1429; 2 Cal. Rptr. 2d 629; 91 Daily Journal DAR 15561 (1991).Google Scholar
6.R.A.V. v. Saint Paul, 505 U.S. 377; 112 S. Ct. 2538; 1992 U.S. LEXIS 3863; 120 L. Ed. 2d 305; 60 U.S.L.W. 4667; 92 Cal. Daily Op. Service 5299; 92 Daily Journal DAR 8395; 6 Fla. Law W. Fed. S 479 (1992).Google Scholar
7.State v. Mitchell, 169 Wis. 2d 153; 485 N.W.2d 807; 1992 Wisc. LEXIS 323 (1992).Google Scholar
8.State v. Wyant, 64 Ohio St. 3d 566; 597 N.E.2d 450; 1992 Ohio LEXIS 1837 (1992).Google Scholar
9.State v. Plowman, 314 Ore. 157; 838 P.2d 558; 1992 Ore. LEXIS 158; 61 U.S.L.W. 2149; 22 A.L.R. 5th 835 (1992).Google Scholar
10.Dobbins v. State, 605 So. 2d 922; 1992 Fla. App. LEXIS 10062; 17 Fla. Law W. D 2222 (1992).Google Scholar
11.People v. Miccio, 155 Misc. 2d 697; 589 N.Y.S.2d 762; 1992 N.Y. Misc. LEXIS 472 (1992).Google Scholar
12.Richards v. State, 608 So. 2d 917; 1992 Fla. App. LEXIS 11654; 17 Fla. Law W. D 2595 (1992).Google Scholar
13.People v. Joshua H., 13 Cal. App. 4th 1734; 1993 Cal. App. LEXIS 227; 17 Cal. Rptr. 2d 291; 93 Cal. Daily Op. Service 1747 (1993).Google Scholar
14.People v. Superior Court, 15 Cal. App. 4th 1593; 1993 Cal. App. LEXIS 541; 19 Cal. Rptr. 2d 444; 93 Cal. Daily Op. Service 3828; 93 Daily Journal DAR 6594 (1993).Google Scholar
15.Wisconsin v. Mitchell, 113 S. Ct. 2194; 1993 U.S. LEXIS 4024; 124 L. Ed. 2d 436; 61 U.S.L.W. 4575; 21 Media L. Rep. 1520; 93 Cal. Daily Op. Service 4314; 93 Daily Journal DAR 7353 (1993).Google Scholar
16.State v. Ladue, 160 Vt. 630; 631 A.2d 236; 1993 Vt. LEXIS 68 (1993).Google Scholar
17.In re M.S., 27 Cal. App. 4th 1752; 1993 Cal. App. LEXIS 839; 22 Cal. Rptr. 2d 560; 93 Cal. Daily Op. Service 6177; 93 Daily Journal DAR 10596 (1993).Google Scholar
18.State v. Talley, 122 Wash. 2d 192; 858 P.2d 217; 1993 Wash. LEXIS 227 (1993).Google Scholar
19.People v. Richards, 202 Mich. App. 377; 509 N.W.2d 528; 1993 Mich. App. LEXIS 425 (1993).Google Scholar
20.People v. Baker, 31 Cal. App. 4th 889; 1993 Cal. App. LEXIS 1257; 25 Cal. Rptr. 2d 372; 93 Cal. Daily Op. Service 9354; 93 Daily Journal DAR 16013 (1993).Google Scholar
21.State v. McKnight, 511 N.W.2d 389; 1994 Iowa Sup. LEXIS 12 (1994).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
22.State v. Vanatter, 869 S.W.2d 754; 1994 Mo. LEXIS 10 (1994).Google Scholar
23.State v. Stalder, 630 So. 2d 1072; 1994 Fla. LEXIS 76; 19 Fla. Law W. S 56 (1994).Google Scholar
24.Reeves v. State, 631 So. 2d 374; 1994 Fla. App. LEXIS 836; 19 Fla. Law W. D 331 (1994).Google Scholar
25.Groover v. State, 632 So. 2d 691; 1994 Fla. App. LEXIS 1810; 19 Fla. Law W. D 471 (1994).Google Scholar
26.State v. Mortimer, 135 N.J. 517; 641 A.2d 257; 1994 N.J. LEXIS 427 (1994).Google Scholar
27.State v. Kearns, 136 N.J. 56; 642 A.2d 349; 1994 NJ. LEXIS 430; 63 U.S.L.W. 2015 (1994).Google Scholar
28.Richards v. State, 643 So. 2d 89; 1994 Fla. App. LEXIS 9545; 19 Fla. Law W. D 2114 (1994).Google Scholar
29.People v. MacKenzie, 34 Cal. App. 4th 1256; 1995 Cal. App. LEXIS 447; 40 Cal. Rptr. 2d 793; 95 Cal. Daily Op. Service 3563 (1995).Google Scholar
30.In re M.S., 10 Cal. 4th 698; 896 P.2d 1365; 1995 Cal. LEXIS 3713; 42 Cal. Rptr. 2d 355; 95 Cal. Daily Op. Service 5161; 95 Daily Journal DAR 8803 (1995).Google Scholar
31.People v. Superior Court 10 Cal. 4th 735; 896 P.2d 1387; 1995 Cal. LEXIS 3712; 42 Cal. Rptr. 2d 377; 95 Cal. Daily Op. Service 5170; 95 Daily Journal DAR 8816 (1995).Google Scholar
32.Washington v. Pollard 80 Wash. App. 60; 906 P.2d 976; 1995 Wash. App. LEXIS 493 (1995).Google Scholar
33.In re Vladimir P. 283 Ill. App. 3d 1068; 670 N.E.2d 839; 1996 Ill. App. LEXIS 702; 219 Ill. Dec. 161 (1996).Google Scholar
34.Illinois v. Nitz 285 Ill. App. 3d 364; 674 N.E.2d 802; 1996 Ill. App. LEXIS 841; 221 Ill. Dec. 9 (1996).Google Scholar
35.Witchita v. Edwards 1997 Kan. App LEXIS 90 (1997).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
36.State v. Nye 283 Mont. 505; 943 P.2d 96; 1997 Mont. LEXIS 154 (1997).Google Scholar
37.State v. Apprendi 304 NJ. Super. 147; 698 A.2d 1265; 1997 NJ. Super. LEXIS 365 (1997).Google Scholar
38.Boyd v. Texas 1999 Tex. App. LEXIS 2031 (1999).Google Scholar

Other Cases Cited

United States v. O'Brien, 391 U.S. 367, 20 L. Ed. 2d 672, 88 S. Ct. 1673 (1968) Brzonkala v. Morrison 1999 U.S. LEXIS 4745; 144 L. Ed. 2d 842; 68 U.S.L.W. 3177; 99 Cal. Daily Op. Service 8014; 99 Daily Journal DAR 10157 (pending 1999).Google Scholar

Statutes Cited

Federal Hate Crime Sentencing Act, 18 U.S.C. 994..Google Scholar
Conspiracy Against Rights, 18 U.S.C. 241..Google Scholar
Deprivation of Rights Under Color of Law, 18 U.S.C. 242..Google Scholar
Federally Protected Activities, 18 U.S.C. 245..Google Scholar