Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-2brh9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-25T22:29:56.977Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Religion, State Power, and Domestic Violence in Muslim Societies: A Framework for Comparative Analysis

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 December 2018

Lisa Hajjar
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article focuses on the issue of domestic violence in Muslim societies in the Middle East, Africa, and Asia. The analytical framework is comparative, emphasizing four factors and the interplay among them: shari'a (Islamic law), state power, intrafamily violence, and struggles over women's rights. The comparative approach historicizes the problem of domestic violence and impunity to consider the impact of transnational legal discourses (Islamism and human rights) on “local” struggles over rights and law. The use of shari'a creates some commonalities in gender and family relations in Muslim societies, notably the sanctioning and maintenance of male authority over female relatives. However, the most important issue for understanding domestic violence and impunity is the relationship between religion and state power. This relationship takes three forms: communalization, in which religious law is separate from the national legal regime; nationalization, in which the state incorporates religious law into the national legal regime; and theocratization, in which the national legal regime is based on religious law.

Type
Articles
Information
Law & Social Inquiry , Volume 29 , Issue 1 , Winter 2004 , pp. 1 - 38
Copyright
Copyright © American Bar Foundation, 2004 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abdel Hadi, Amal, and Darwiche, Nawla. N.d. Strategies to Fight Domestic Violence against Women in the Arab Countries. New York: United Nations Division on the Advancement of Women. Draft.Google Scholar
Abdel, Halim, Asma, Mohamed 1994. Tools of Suppression. In Gender Violence and Women's Human Rights in Africa. New Brunswick, N.J.: Center for Women's Global Leadership.Google Scholar
Adeiman, Madelaine. 2000. No Way Out: Divorce-related Domestic Violence Research in Israel. Violence against Women 6 (11): 1223–54.Google Scholar
Afary, Janet. 1998. The War against Feminism in the Name of the Almighty: Making Sense of Gender and Muslim Fundamentalism. Women Living under Muslim Laws Dossier 21:7–31.Google Scholar
Afkhami, Mahnaz, ed. 1995. Faith and Freedom: Women's Human Rights in the Muslim World. Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press.Google Scholar
Afkhami, Mahnaz, Nemiroff, Greta Hofmann, and Vazeri, Haleh. 1998. Safe and Secure: Eliminating Violence against Women and Girls in Muslim Societies. Bethesda, Md.: Sisterhood Is Global Institute.Google Scholar
Afkhami, Mahnaz and Vazeri, Haleh. 1996. Claiming Our Rights: A Manual for Women's Human Rights Education in Muslim Societies. Bethesda, Md.: Sisterhood Is Global Institute.Google Scholar
Ahmed, Leila. 1992. Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a Modern Debate. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Al-Ali, Nadje. 2000. Secularism, Gender and die State in the Middle East: The Egyptian Women's Movement. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Al-Hibri, Azizah. 1997. Islam, Law and Custom: Redefining Muslim Women's Rights. American Journal of International Law and Policy 12:1–44.Google Scholar
Al-Hibri, Azizah. 2001. Muslim Women's Rights in the Global Village: Opportunities and Challenges. Journal of Law and Religion 15:29–81.Google Scholar
Ali, Shaheen Sardar. 2000. Gender and Human Rights in Islam and International Law: Equal before Allah, Unequal before Man? The Hague: Kluwer Law International.Google Scholar
Amnesty International. 1997. Women's Human Rights Remain a Dead Letter [Pakistan]. London: Amnesty International.Google Scholar
Amnesty International. 1998. Pakistan: No Progress on Women's Rights. London: Amnesty International.Google Scholar
An-Na'im, Abdullahi. 1994. State Responsibility under International Human Rights Law to Change Religious and Customary Laws. In Cook 1994.Google Scholar
An-Na'im, Abdullahi. 1996. Islam and Women's Rights: A Case Study. Women Living under Islamic Law Dossier 14–15:96–109.Google Scholar
An-Na'im, Abdullahi, and Deng, Francis, eds. 1990. Human Rights in Africa: Cross-Cultural Perspectives. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution.Google Scholar
Atinmo, Morayo. 1997. Sociocultural Implications of Wife Beating in Nigeria. In Men, Women and Violence. Senegal: CODESRIA Gender Institute.Google Scholar
Badawi, Jamal. 1995. Gender Equity in Islam: Basic Principles. Plainfield, Ind.: American Trust Publications.Google Scholar
Bodman, Herbert, and Tohidi, Nayereh, eds. 1998. Women in Muslim Societies: Diversity within Unity. Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner Publishers.Google Scholar
Bukurta, Milkah Elam. 1998. Pattern of Wife Abuse within Families in Yola Adamawa Education, University of Nigeria.Google Scholar
Bumiller, Kristin. 1988. The Civil Rights Society: The Social Construction of Victims. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Bunch, Charlotte, and Reilly, Niamh. 1999. Demanding Accountability: The Global Campaign and Vienna Tribunal for Women's Human Rights. New Brunswick, N.J.: Center for Women's Global Leadership.Google Scholar
Callaway, Barbara, and Creevey, Lucy. 1989. Women and the State in Islamic West Africa. In Women, the State and Development, ed. Charlton, Sue Ellen, Everett, Jana, and Staudt, Kathleen. Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press.Google Scholar
Mounira, Charrad. 1990. State and Gender in the Maghrib. Middle East Report 19–24.Google Scholar
Chatterjee, Partha. 1995. Religious Minorities and the Secular State: Reflections on an Indian Impasse. Public Culture 8 (1): 11–40.Google Scholar
Jane, Connors. 1994. Government Measures to Confront Violence against Women. In Davies 1994b.Google Scholar
Jane, Connors. 1996. The Women's Convention in the Muslim World. In Yamani 1996.Google Scholar
Cook, Rebecca, ed. 1994. Human Rights of Women: National and International Perspectives. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar
Coomarswamy, Radhika. 1996. Further Promotion and Encouragement of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms for Women. Report to the UN Commission on Human Rights. E/CN.4/1996.Google Scholar
Coomarswamy, Radhika. 1999. Violence against Women in the Family. Report to the UN Commission on Human Rights. E/CN.4/1999.Google Scholar
Coomarswamy, Radhika. 2000. Combating Domestic Violence: Obligations of the State. In Domestic Violence against Women and Girls. Florence, Italy: Innocenti Research Center, UNICEF.Google Scholar
Cooper, Barbara. 1998. Gender and Religion in Hausaland: Variations in Islamic Practice in Niger and Nigeria. In Bodman and Tohidi 1998.Google Scholar
Copelon, Rhonda. 1994. Intimate Terror: Understanding Domestic Violence as Torture. In Cook 1994.Google Scholar
Crenshaw, Kimberle. 1995. Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence against Women of Color. In Critical Race Theory: The Key Writings that Formed the Movement, ed. Crenshaw, Kimberle, Gotanda, Neil, Peller, Gary, and Thomas, Kendall. New York: New Press.Google Scholar
Davies, Miranda. 1994a. Understanding the Problem (from the UN Resource Manual Strategies for Confronting Domestic Violence). In Davies 1994b.Google Scholar
Davies, Miranda, ed. 1994b. Women and Violence: Realities and Responses Worldwide. London: Zed Books.Google Scholar
Dawood, N. J., trans. 1974 The Koran. New York: Penguin Books.Google Scholar
Dobash, R. E., and Dobash, R. P. 1980. Violence against Wives: A Case Study against Patriarchy. London: Open Books.Google Scholar
Dobash, R. E., and Dobash, R. P. 1992. Women, Violence and Social Change. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Effah, Josephine. 1995. Unequal Rights: Discriminatory Laws and Practices against Women in Nigeria. Lagos, Nigeria: Constitutional Rights Project.Google Scholar
Eissa, Dahlia. 1999. Constructing the Notion of Male Superiority over Women in Islam: The Influence of Sex and Gender Stereotyping in the Interpretation of the Qur'an and the Implications for a Modernist Exegesis of Rights. Occasional paper no. 11. Montpellier, France: Women Living under Muslim Laws.Google Scholar
El Alami, Dawoud. 1992. The Marriage Contract in Islamic Law in the Shari'ah and Personal Status Laws of Egypt and Morocco. London: Graham and Trotman.Google Scholar
El Alami, Dawoud, and Hinchcliffe, Doreen. 1996. Islamic Marriage and Divorce Laws, of the Arab World. The Hague: CIMEL and Kluwer Law International.Google Scholar
El-Solh, Camilla Fawzi, and Mabro, Judy, eds. 1994. Muslim Women's Choices: Religious Belief and Social Reality. Oxford, England: Berg Publishers.Google Scholar
El-Zanaty, Fatma, Hussein, Enas M., Shawky, Gihan A., Way, Ann A., and Kishor, Sunita. 1996. Egypt Demographic and Health Survey 1995. Cairo: National Population Council.Google Scholar
Engineer, Asghar Ali. 1992. The Rights of Women in Islam. New York: St. Martin's Press.Google Scholar
Engineer, Asghar Ali. 1996. Communalism in India. New Delhi: Vikas Publishers.Google Scholar
Engineer, Asghar Ali. 1999. The Need for Codification and Reform in Muslim Personal Law in India. Women Living under Muslim Laws Dossier 22:56–59.Google Scholar
Esfandiari, Haleh. 1994. The Majles and Women's Issues in the Islamic Republic of Iran. In In the Eye of the Storm: Women in Post-Revolutionary Iran, ed. Afkhami, Mahnaz and Friedl, Erika. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press.Google Scholar
Ezeah, Peter Chukwama. 1993. Socialization, Social Class and Marital Violence: A Study of Wife Abuse in Nsukka Local Government Area, Enugu State Nsukka [Nigeria]. Master's thesis, Department of Sociology/Anthropology, University of Nigeria.Google Scholar
Flavia, Agnes. 1999. Law and Gender Inequality: The Politics of Women's Rights in India. Columbia, Mo.: South Asia Books.Google Scholar
Fried, Susana, ed. 1994. The Indivisibility of Women's Human Rights: A Continuing Dialogue. New Brunswick, N.J.: Center for Women's Global Leadership.Google Scholar
Gottesman, Evan. 1992. The Reemergence of Qisas and Diyat in Pakistan. Columbia Human Rights Law Review 23:433–61.Google Scholar
Green, December. 1999. Gender Violence in Africa: African Women's Responses. New York: St. Martin's Press.Google Scholar
HRW. See Human Rights Watch.Google Scholar
Haeri, Shahla. 1995. The Politics of Dishonor: Rape and Power in Pakistan. In Afkhami 1995.Google Scholar
Haj-Yahia, Muhammad. 1995. Towards Culturally Sensitive Intervention within Arab Families in Israel. Contemporary Family Therapy 17 (4): 429–47.Google Scholar
Haj-Yahia, Muhammad. 1996. Wife Abuse in the Arab Society in Israel: Some Challenges for Future Change. In Future Interventions with Battered Women and Their Families, ed. Edleson, Jeffrey L. and Eisikovitz, Zvi. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
Hajjar, Lisa. 1998. Between a Rock and a Hatd Place: Arab Women, Liberal Feminism and the Israeli State. Middle East Report, no. 207, 27–28.Google Scholar
Hajjar, Lisa. 2000. Sovereign Bodies, Sovereign States and the Problem of Tortute. Studies in Law, Politics, and Society 21:101–34.Google Scholar
Halliday, Fred. 1995. Relativism and Universalism in Human Rights: The Case of the Islamic Middle East. Political Studies 43:152–67.Google Scholar
Halliday, Fred, and Alavi, Hamza, eds. 1988. State and Ideology in the Middle East and Pakistan. London: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Hamadeh, Najla. 1996. Islamic Family Legislation: The Authoritarian Discourse of Silence. In Yamani 1996.Google Scholar
Hassan, Riffat. 1987. Women in the Context of Change and Confrontation with Muslim Communities. In Women of Faith in Dialogue, ed. Mollenkott, Vitginia Ramney. New York: Crossroad.Google Scholar
Hassan, Riffat. 1995. Women's Rights and Islam: From the I.C.P.D. to Beijing. Louisville, Ky.: NISA Publications.Google Scholar
Hassan, Yasmine. 1995. The Haven Becomes Hell. Lahore, Pakistan: Shirkat Gah.Google Scholar
Hoodfar, Homa. 1999. The Women's Movement in Iran: Women at the Crossroads of Secularization and Islamization. Women's Movement Series no. 1. Montpellier, France: Women Living under Muslim Laws.Google Scholar
Howard, Rhoda. 1990. Group versus Individual Identity in the African Debate. In An-Na'im and Deng 1990.Google Scholar
Human Rights Commission of Pakistan [HRCP]. 1997. State of Human Rights in 1996. Lahore: Human Rights Commission of Pakistan.Google Scholar
Human Rights Commission of Pakistan [HRCP]. 1998. State of Human Rights in 1997. Lahore: Human Rights Commission of Pakistan.Google Scholar
Human Rights Watch [HRW]. 1998. Human Rights Watch World Report 1998. New York: Human Rights Watch.Google Scholar
Human Rights Watch [HRW]. 1999. Crime or Custom? Violence against Women in Pakistan. New York: Human Rights Watch.Google Scholar
Human Rights Watch [HRW]. 2001. Morocco: Action Urged on Legal Code Reform. Press release. Available at: http://www.hrw.org/press/2001/03/morocco0320.htm.Google Scholar
Human Rights Watch [HRW]. 2002. Human Rights Watch World Report 2002. New York: Human Rights Watch.Google Scholar
Ibrahim, Ibtisam. 1998. The Status of Arab Women in Israel. Critique 12:107–20.Google Scholar
International Center for Research on Women. 1999. Domestic Violence in India: A Summary Report of Three Studies. Washington, D.C.: International Center for Research on Women and the Centre for Development and Population Activities.Google Scholar
Jayawardena, Kumari, and de Alwis, Malathi, eds. 1996. Embodied Violence: Communalising Women's Sexuality in South Asia. London: Zed Books.Google Scholar
Jefferson, LaShawn. 2002. The War on Women. Wall Street Journal, 22 August.Google Scholar
Jeffrey, Patricia, and Basu, Amrita, eds. 1998. Appropriating Gender: Women's Activism and Politicized Religion in South Asia. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Joseph, Ammu. 2002. Intimate Enemy. Hindu [online newspaper], 4 August.Google Scholar
Kandiyoti, Deniz. 1988. Bargaining with Patriarchy. Gender and Society 2-3:274–90.Google Scholar
Kandiyoti, Deniz. 1995. Reflections on the Politics of Gender in Muslim Societies: From Nairobi to Beijing. In Afkhami 1995.Google Scholar
Kandiyoti, Deniz. ed. 1991. Introduction to Women, Islam and the State. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.Google Scholar
Kian, Azadeh. 1998. Women and Politics in Post-Islamist Iran: The Gender-Conscious Drive to Change. Women Lining under Muslim Laws Dossier 12:75–96.Google Scholar
Kian-Thiebaut, Azadeh. 1999. Political and Social Transformations in Post-Islamist Iran. Middle East Report 29 (3): 12–16.Google Scholar
Kumar, Radha. 1994. Identity Politics and the Contemporary Indian Feminist Movement. In Identity Politics and Women: Cultural Reassertions and Feminisms in International Perspective, ed. Moghadam, Valentine. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1994.Google Scholar
Lateef, Shahida. 1998. Muslim Women in India: A Minority within a Minority. In Bodman and Tohidi 1998.Google Scholar
Levinson, David. 1989. Domestic Violence in Cross-Cultural Perspective. Newbury Park, N.J.: Sage.Google Scholar
Maghroui, Abdeslam. 2001. Political Authority in Crisis: Mohammed VI's Morocco. Middle East Report 31 (1): 12–17.Google Scholar
Mani, Lata. 1989. Contentious Traditions: The Debate on Sati in Colonial India. In Recasting Women: Essays in Colonial History, ed. Sangari, Kumkum and Vaid, Sudesh. New Delhi: Kali for Women.Google Scholar
Mayer, Ann. 1991. Islam and Human Rights: Tradition and Politics. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Mayer, Ann. 1995a. Cultural Particularism as a Bar to Women's Rights: Reflections on the Middle Eastern Experience. In Women's Rights, Human Rights: International Feminist Perspectives, ed. Peters, Julie and Wolper, Andrea. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Mayer, Ann. 1995b. Rhetorical Strategies and Official Policies on Women's Rights: The Merits and Drawbacks of the New World Hypocrisy. In Afkhami 1995.Google Scholar
Mehdi, Rubya. 1990. The Offense of Rape in the Islamic Law of Pakistan. International Journal of the Sociology of Law 18:19–29.Google Scholar
Mernissi, Fatima. 1991. The Veil and the Male Elite: A Feminist Interpretation of Women's Rights in Islam. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar
Mernissi, Fatima. 1995. Arab Women's Rights and the Muslim State in the Twenty-first Century: Reflections on Islam as Religion and State. In Afkhami 1995.Google Scholar
Mills, Linda G. 1999. Killing Her Softly: Intimate Abuse and the Violence of State Intervention. Harvard Law Review 113:550–613.Google Scholar
Mir-Hosseini, Ziba. 1996. Stretching the Limits: A Feminist Reading of the Shari'a in Post-Khomeini Iran. In Yamani 1996.Google Scholar
Mir-Hosseini, Ziba. 2000. Islam and Gender: The Religious Debate in Contemporary Islam. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Mir-Hosseini, Ziba. 2001. The Rise and Fall of Fa'ezeh Hashemi: Women in Iranian Elections. Middle East Report 31 (1): 8–11.Google Scholar
Moghissi, Hajdeh. 1996. Factionalism and Muslim Feminine Elite in Iran. In Iran after the Revolution, ed. Rahnema, Saeed and Behdad, Sohrab. London: I. B. Tauris.Google Scholar
Moghissi, Hajdeh. 1999. Feminism and Islamic Fundamentalism: The Limits of Postmodern Analysis. London: Zed Books.Google Scholar
Mohanty, Chandra Talpade. 1991. Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses. In Third World Women and the Politics of Feminism, ed. Mohanty, Ann Russo and Torres, Lourdes. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Negus, Steve. 2000. Egypt: Family Law Reform. Middle East International, 11 February, 18–19.Google Scholar
Olawale, Albert. 1996. Women and Violence in Kano, Nigeria. Ibadan, Nigeria: Spectrum Books.Google Scholar
Pakizegi, Ilehnaz. 1978. Legal and Social Positions of Iranian Women. In Women in the Muslim World, ed. Beck, Lois and Keddi, Nikki. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Panikkar, R. 1982. Is the Notion of Human Rights a Western Concept Diogenes 120:75–102.Google Scholar
Pearl, David, and Menski, Werner. 1998. Muslim Family Law. 3d ed. London: Sweet and Maxwell.Google Scholar
Quraishi, Asifa. 2000. Her Honor: An Islamic Critique of the Rape Laws of Pakistan from a Woman-sensitive Perspective. In Windows of Faith: Muslim Women Scholar-Activists in North America, ed. Webb, Gisela. Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press.Google Scholar
Rouse, Shahnaz. 1998. The Outsider(s) within: Sovereignty and Citizenship in Pakistan. In Jeffrey and Basu 1998.Google Scholar
Seager, Joni. 1999 The State of Women in the World Atlas. London: Penguin Books.Google Scholar
Shaheed, Farida. 1994- The Experience in Pakistan. In Davies 1994b.Google Scholar
Shaheed, Farida, et al., eds. 1998. Shaping Women's Lives: Laws, Practices and Strategies in Pakistan. Lahore, Pakistan: Women's Resource Centre.Google Scholar
Shalhoub-Kevorkian, Nadera. 1999. Law, Politics, and Violence against Women: A Case Study of Palestinians in Israel. Law and Policy 21 (2): 189–211.Google Scholar
Sharabi, Hisham. 1988. Neopatriarchy: A Theory of Distorted Change in Arab Society. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Sharma, Kalpana. 2002. Women's Groups Oppose Domestic Violence Bill. Hindu [online newspaper], 8 March.Google Scholar
Singh, Kirti. 1994. Obstacles to Women's Rights in India. In Cook 1994.Google Scholar
Sonbol, Amira El-Azhary. 1998. To'a and Modern Legal Reform: A Rereading. Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations 9 (3): 285–94.Google Scholar
Sonbol, Amira El-Azhary. ed. 1996. Women, the Family and Divorce Laws in Islamic History. Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press.Google Scholar
Stork, Joe, and Beinin, Joel, eds. 1997. Political Islam. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Stowasser, Barbara. 1998. Gender Issues and Contemporary Quran Interpretation. In Islam, Gender and Social Change, ed. Haddad, Yvonne and Esposito, John. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Svensson, Jonas. 2000. Women's Human Rights and Islam: A Study of Three Attempts at Accommodation. Vol. 12. Lund, Norway: Lund Studies in History of Religions.Google Scholar
Swirski, Barbara. 2000. The Citizenship of Jewish and Palestinian Women in Israel. In Gender and Citizenship in the Middle East, ed. Joseph, Suad. Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press.Google Scholar
Tadross, Marlyn. 1995. Women between Reality and Law. In Partial Citizenship: The Marginalization of Women in Egypt (in Arabic), ed. Tadross, Abdulaziz Al-Shabiti, and Abdulhakim, Amira. Cairo: Legal Research and Resource Center for Human Rights.Google Scholar
Tadross, Marlyn. 1998. Rightless Women, Heartless Men: Egyptian Women and Domestic Violence. Cairo: Legal Research and Resource Center for Human Rights.Google Scholar
Tibi, Bassam. 1990. The European Tradition of Human Rights and the Culture of Islam. In An-Na'im and Deng 1990.Google Scholar
Tibi, Bassam. 1994. Islamic Law/Shari'a, Human Rights, Universal Morality and International Relations. Human Rights Quarterly 16:277–99.Google Scholar
Toubia, Nahid. 1994. Women's Reproductive and Sexual Rights. In Gender Violence and Women's Human Rights in Africa. New Brunswick, N.J.: Center for Women's Global Leadership.Google Scholar
United Nations. 2000. The World's Women 2000. New York: United Nations.Google Scholar
Walley, Christine. 1997. Searching for “Voices”: Feminism, Anthropology and the Global Debate over Female Genital Operations. Cultural Anthropology 12:405–38.Google Scholar
Welchman, Lynn, et al. 1999-2000. Roundtable on Strategies to Address “Crimes of Honour”: A Summary Report. Yearbook on Islamic and Middle Eastern Law 6:439–61.Google Scholar
Women, Law and Development International. 1996. State Responses to Domestic Violence: Current Status and Needed Improvements. Washington, D.C.: Women, Law and Development International.Google Scholar
Women's Ministry [Pakistan]. 1985. Battered Housewives in Pakistan. Islamabad: Women's Ministry [Pakistan].Google Scholar
World Bank. N.d. Genderstats. Available at http://www.genderstats.worldbank.org.Google Scholar
Yahia, M. M. 1998. The Incidence of Wife Abuse and Battering and Some Sociodemographic Correlates as Revealed in Two National Surveys in Palestinian Society. Ramallah, Palestinian Authority: Bisan Center for Research and Development.Google Scholar
Yamani, Mai, ed. 1996. Feminism and Islam: Legal and Literary Perspectives. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Zorn, Jean. 1999. Women's Rights Are Human Rights: International Law and the Culture of Domestic Violence. In To Have and to Hit: Cultural Perspectives on Wife Beating, ed. Counts, Dorothy Ayers, Brown, Judith, and Campbell, Jacquelyn. 2d ed. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Zubaida, Sami. 2001. Islam and the Politics of Community and Citizenship. Middle East Report 31 (4): 20–27.Google Scholar