Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-l4dxg Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-08T08:57:15.897Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

How Civility Matters in Civil Matters: Procedural Justice and Court Legitimacy in the Midst of a Legitimacy Crisis

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 December 2021

Stanisław Burdziej ,
Keith Guzik  and
Bartosz Pilitowski
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The procedural justice thesis that quality of treatment matters more than outcomes in people’s perception of institutional legitimacy is supported by a large body of research. But studies also suggest that distributive justice and the effectiveness of authorities are more important in certain legal settings (civil courts) and national contexts (posttransition societies). This study tests these ideas through a survey of 192 civil litigants in Poland, a postcommunist country where the national judiciary has recently been subject to intense political scrutiny. Our findings support the generalizability of procedural justice, and especially voice, but also demonstrate the significance of outcomes and legal cynicism. We also discuss prior court contact, role (plaintiff versus defendants), and representation (presence of counsel) as potential moderators on litigants’ perceptions of court legitimacy.

Type
Articles
Information
Law & Social Inquiry , Volume 47 , Issue 2 , May 2022 , pp. 558 - 583
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the American Bar Foundation

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Akinlabi, Oluwagbenga Michael, and Murphy, Kristina. “Dull Compulsion or Perceived Legitimacy? Assessing Why People Comply with the Law in Nigeria.” Police Practice and Research 19, no. 2 (2018): 186–201.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Atkin-Plunk, Cassandra A., and Armstrong, Gaylene S.. “An Examination of the Impact of Drug Court Clients’ Perceptions of Procedural Justice on Graduation Rates and Recidivism.” Journal of Offender Rehabilitation 55, no. 8 (2016): 525–47.10.1080/10509674.2016.1229712CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benesh, Sara. “Understanding Public Confidence in American Courts.” The Journal of Politics 68, no. 3 (2006): 697–707.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benesh, Sara, and Howell, Susan. “Confidence in the Courts: A Comparison of Users and Non-Users.” Behavioral Sciences and Law 19 (2001): 199–214.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blader, Steven L., and Tyler, Tom R.. “Testing and Extending the Group Engagement Model: Linkages Between Social Identity, Procedural Justice, Economic Outcomes, and Extrarole Behavior.” Journal of Applied Psychology 94, no. 2 (2009): 445–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bogaards, Matthijs. “How to Classify Hybrid Regimes? Defective Democracy and Electoral Authoritarianism.” Democratization 16, no. 2 (2009): 399–423.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Borowski, Andrzej. “Confidence in Social Institutions in the Post-Communist Countries.” International Letters of Social and Humanistic Sciences 14 (2014): 7–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bottoms, Anthony, and Justice, Tankebe. “Beyond Procedural Justice: A Dialogic Approach to Legitimacy in Criminal Justice.” The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 102, no. 1 (2012): 119–70.Google Scholar
Bradford, Ben, Huq, Aziz, Jonathan Jackson, and Benjamin Roberts. “What Price Fairness When Security Is at Stake? Police Legitimacy in South Africa.” Regulation & Governance 8, no. 2 (2014): 246–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brockner, Joel, and Wiesenfeld, Batia M.. “Organizational Justice Is Alive and Well and Living Elsewhere (But Not Too Far Away).” In Social Psychology and Justice. Edited by Alan Lind, E., 214–42. New York: Routledge, 2019.Google Scholar
Brockner, Joel, Ackerman, Grant, Jerald Greenberg, Michele J. Gelfand, Anne Marie Francesco, Zhen Xiong Chen, Kwok Leung, et al. “Culture and Procedural Justice: The Influence of Power Distance on Reactions to Voice.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 37, no. 4 (2001): 300–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, Timothy A. Confirmatory Factor Analysis for Applied Research. New York: Guilford Press, 2006.Google Scholar
Brusis, Martin. “The Politics of Legitimation in Post-Soviet Eurasia.” In Politics and Legitimacy in Post-Soviet Eurasia. Edited by Brusis, Martin, Ahrens, Joachim, and Martin Schulze Wessel, 1–17. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burdziej, Stanislaw, Guzik, Keith, and Bartosz Pilitowski. “Fairness at Trial: The Impact of Procedural Justice and Other Experiential Factors on Criminal Defendants’ Perceptions of Court Legitimacy in Poland.” Law & Social Inquiry 44, no. 2 (2019): 359–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cheng, Kevin Kwok-yin. “Legitimacy in a Postcolonial Legal System: Public Perception of Procedural Justice and Moral Alignment Toward the Courts in Hong Kong.” Law & Social Inquiry, 43, no. 1 (2018): 212–28.10.1111/lsi.12253CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cheng, Kevin Kwok-yin. “Prosecutorial Procedural Justice and Public Legitimacy in Hong Kong.” The British Journal of Criminology 57, no. 1 (2017): 94–111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohn, Ellen S., White, Susan O., and Joseph, Sanders. 2000. “Distributive and Procedural Justice in Seven Nations.” Law and Human Behavior 24, no. 5 (2000): 553–79.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Colquitt, Jason A., and Kate P. Zipay. “Justice, Fairness, and Employee Reactions.” Annual Review Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior. 2, no. 1 (2015): 75–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Colquitt, Jason A., Conlon, Donald E., Wesson, Michael J., Porter, Christopher OLH, and Yee Ng, K.. “Justice at the Millennium: A Meta-Analytic Review of 25 Years of Organizational Justice Research.” Journal of Applied Psychology 86, no. 3 (2001): 425–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Connor, Tyrell A. “Legitimation in Action: An Examination of Community Courts and Procedural Justice.” Journal of Crime and Justice 42, no. 2 (2019): 161–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Creutzfeldt, Naomi, and Ben, Bradford. “Dispute Resolution Outside of Courts: Procedural Justice and Decision Acceptance Among Users of Ombuds Services in the UK.” Law & Society Review 50, no. 4 (2016): 985–1016.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cropanzano, Russel S., Ambrose, Maureen L., and Phoenix, Van Wagoner. “Organizational Justice and Workplace Emotion.” In Social Psychology and Justice. Edited by Alan Lind, E., 243–12. New York: Routledge, 2019.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cropanzano, Russell, and Agustin, Molina. “Organizational Justice.” In International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. 2 nd ed., Vol. 17. Edited by James, D. Wright, 379–84. Oxford, UK: Elsevier, 2015.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dollar, Cindy Brooks, Ray, Bradley, Mary Kay Hudson, and Brittany J. Hood. “Examining Changes in Procedural Justice and Their Influence on Problem-Solving Court Outcomes.” Behavioral Sciences & the Law 36, no. 1 (2018): 32–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
European Commission. “European Commission Refers Poland to the Court of Justice” (2021). https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/EN/IP_21_1524.Google Scholar
Farley, Erin, Jensen, Elise, and Michael Rempel. Improving Courtroom Communication: A Procedural Justice Experiment in Milwaukee. New York: Center for Court Innovation, 2014.Google Scholar
Fox, Bryanna, Moule, Richard K., Chae Jaynes, and Megan Parry. “Are the Effects of Legitimacy and Its Components Invariant? Operationalization and the Generality of Sunshine and Tyler’s Empowerment Hypothesis.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 58, no. 1 (2021): 3–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frazer, M. Somjen. The Impact of the Community Court Model on Defendant Perceptions of Fairness: A Case Study at the Red Hook Community Justice Center. New York: The Center for Court Innovation, 2006.Google Scholar
Galanter, Marc. “Why the ‘Haves’ Come Out Ahead: Speculations on the Limits of Legal Change.” Law & Society Review, 9, no. 1 (1974): 95–160.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gao, Jingkang, and Jinhua, Zhao. “Legitimacy Versus Morality: Why Do the Chinese Obey the Law?” Law and Human Behavior 42, no. 2 (2018): 167–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gati, Charles. “The Mirage of Democracy.” Transition 6, no. 2 (1996): 6–12.Google Scholar
Gau, Jacinta M. “Procedural Justice, Police Legitimacy, and Legal Cynicism: A Test for Mediation Effects.” Police Practice and Research 16, no. 5 (2015): 402–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gau, Jacinta M. “Basic Principles and Practices of Structural Equation Modeling in Criminal Justice and Criminology.” Journal of Criminal Justice Education 21, no. 2 (2010): 136–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gracean, John. Resources to Assist Self-Represented Litigants: A Fifty-State Review of the “State of the Art.” Michigan State Bar Foundation, 2011.Google Scholar
Grootelaar, Hilke AM, and Kees van den Bos. “How Litigants in Dutch Courtrooms Come to Trust Judges: The Role of Perceived Procedural Justice, Outcome Favorability, and Other Sociolegal Moderators.” Law & Society Review 52, no. 1 (2018): 234–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Habibov, Nazim, Afandi, Elvin, and Alex Cheung. “Sand or Grease? Corruption-Institutional Trust Nexus in Post-Soviet Countries.” Journal of Eurasian Studies 8, no. 2 (2017): 172–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haidt, Johnathan. The Righteous Mind. New York: Pantheon Books, 2012.Google Scholar
Hamm, Joseph A. “An Application of the Integrated Framework of Legitimacy to the State Courts Context.” International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice 44, nos. 1–2 (2019): 85–102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hough, Bonnie. “Self-Represented Litigants in Family Law: The Response of California’s Courts.” California Law Review Court 1 (2010):15–24.Google Scholar
Hough, Mike, Jackson, Jonathan, and Bradford, Ben. “Legitimacy, Trust, and Compliance: An Empirical Test of Procedural Justice Theory Using the European Social Survey.” In Legitimacy and Criminal Justice: An International Exploration. Edited by Tankebe, Justice and Liebling, Alison, 326–52. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hu, Li-tze, and Bentler, Peter M.. “Cutoff Criteria for Fit Indexes in Covariance Structure Analysis: Conventional Criteria Versus New Alternatives.” Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal 6, no. 1 (1999): 1–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hulst, Liesbeth, Van den Bos, Kees, Arno J. Akkermans, and E. Allan Lind. “On Why Procedural Justice Matters in Court Hearings.” Utrecht Law Review 13 (2017): 114–29.10.18352/ulr.413CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hyde, Alan. “The Concept of Legitimation in the Sociology of Law.” Wisconsin Law Review (1983): 379–426.Google Scholar
Jackson, Jonathan. “Norms, Normativity, and the Legitimacy of Justice Institutions: International Perspectives.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 14 (2018): 145–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jackson, Jonathan, and Ben, Bradford. “Blurring the Distinction Between Empirical and Normative Legitimacy? A Commentary on ‘Police Legitimacy and Citizen Cooperation in China.’” LSE Law, Society and Economy Working Papers 4 (2019).Google Scholar
Jackson, Jonathan, Asif, Muhammad, Ben Bradford, and Muhammad Zakria Zakar. “Corruption and Police Legitimacy in Lahore, Pakistan,” British Journal of Criminology 54, no. 6 (2014): 1067–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jonathan-Zamir, Tal, and David, Weisburd. Does Police Performance Increase in Importance for the Public During Times of Security Threats, and Do Evaluations of Procedural Justice Decline in Importance? Findings from a Quasi-Experimental Study of Antecedents of Police Legitimacy in Israel. Jerusalem: Hebrew University, 2009.Google Scholar
Kim, Yeon Soo, Ra, Kwang Hyun, and McLean, Kyle. “The Generalizability of Police Legitimacy: Procedural Justice, Legitimacy, and Speeding Intention of South Korean Drivers.” Asian Journal of Criminology 14, no. 1 (2019): 41–59.10.1007/s11417-018-9278-9CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kluegel, James R., and Mason, David S.. “Fairness Matters: Social Justice and Political Legitimacy in Post-Communist Europe.” Europe-Asia Studies 56, no. 6 (2004): 813–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kurczewski, Jacek. “Prawem i lewem. Kultura prawna społeczeństwa polskiego po komunizmie.” Studia Socjologiczne 185, no. 2 (2007): 33–60.Google Scholar
Leung, Kwok, and Allan Lind, E.. “Procedural Justice and Culture: Effects of Culture, Gender, and Investigator Status on Procedural Preferences.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 50, no. 6 (1986): 1134–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lind, E. Allan, Maureen Ambrose, Maria de Vera Park, and Carol T. Kulik. “Perspective and Procedural Justice: Attorney and Litigant Evaluations of Court Procedures.” Social Justice Research 4, no. 4 (1990): 325–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lind, E. Allan, and Earley, P. C.. “Procedural Justice and Culture.” International Journal of Psychology 27, no. 2 (1992): 227–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Linde, Jonas. “Why Feed the Hand that Bites You? Perceptions of Procedural Fairness and System Support in Post-Communist Democracies.” European Journal of Political Research 51, no. 3 (2012): 410–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Longazel, Jamie, Laurin Parker, and Ivan Sun. “Experiencing Court, Experiencing Race: Perceiving Procedural Injustice among Court Users.” Race and Justice 1, no. 2 (2011): 202–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Machura, Stephan. “Fairness, Justice, and Legitimacy: Experiences of People’s Judges in South Russia.” Law & Policy 25, no. 2 (2003): 123–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matczak, Marcin. “The Strength of the Attack or the Weakness of the Defence? Poland’s Rule of Law Crisis and Legal Formalism” (2018). https://ssrn.com/abstract=3121611.Google Scholar
Mazerolle, Lorraine, Bennett, Sarah, Jacqueline Davis, Elise Sargeant, and Matthew Manning. “Procedural Justice and Police Legitimacy: A Systematic Review of the Research Evidence.” Journal of Experimental Criminology 9, no. 3 (2013): 245–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McIvor, Gill. “Therapeutic Jurisprudence and Procedural Justice in Scottish Drug Courts.” Criminology & Criminal Justice 9, no. 1 (2009): 29–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mishler, William, and Richard, Rose. “What Are the Origins of Political Trust? Testing Institutional and Cultural Theories in Post-Communist Societies.” Comparative Political Studies 34, no. 1 (2001): 30–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moule, Richard K., Jr., Fox, Bryanna, and Megan M. Parry. “The Long Shadow of Ferguson: Legitimacy, Legal Cynicism, and Public Perceptions of Police Militarization.” Crime and Delinquency 65, no. 2 (2019): 151–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murphy, Kristina. “Procedural Justice and Tax Compliance.” Australian Journal of Social Issues 38, no. 3 (2003): 379–408.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nagin, Daniel S., and Telep, Cody W.. “Procedural Justice and Legal Compliance.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 13 (2017): 5–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ohbuchi, Ken-ichi, Teshigahara, Kazuhiko, Kei-ichiro Imazai, and Ikuo Sugawara. “Procedural Justice and the Assessment of Civil Justice in Japan.” Law & Society Review 39, no. 4 (2005): 875–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ornatowski, Cezar M. “Big Brother’s Shadow: History, Justice, and the Political Imagination in Post-1989 Poland.” African Yearbook of Rhetoric 2, no. 1 (2011): 31–40.Google Scholar
Pearce, Katy E. “Political Institutional Trust in the Post-Attempted-Coup Republic of Armenia.” Demokratizatsiya 19, no. 1 (2010): 58–87.Google Scholar
Pickett, Justin T., Justin, Nix, and Sean, Patrick Roche. “Testing a Social Schematic Model of Police Procedural Justice.” Social Psychology Quarterly 81, no. 2 (2018): 97–125.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prato, Giuliana B. “On the Legitimacy of Democratic Representation: Two Case Studies from Europe.” In Legitimacy. Edited by Pardo, Italo and Giuliana, B. Prato, 27–56. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pryce, Daniel K., Devon, Johnson, and Maguire, Edward R.. “Procedural Justice, Obligation to Obey, and Cooperation with Police in a Sample of Ghanaian Immigrants.” Criminal Justice and Behavior 44, no. 5 (2017): 733–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reisig, Michael D., Wolfe, Scott E., and Kristy, Holtfreter. “Legal Cynicism, Legitimacy, and Criminal Offending: The Nonconfounding Effect of Low Self-Control.” Criminal Justice and Behavior 38, no. 12 (2011): 1265–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reisig, Michael D., Justice, Tankebe, and Gorazd, Mesko. “Compliance with the Law in Slovenia: The Role of Procedural Justice and Police Legitimacy.” European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research 20, no. 2 (2013): 259–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reisig, Michael D., Jason, Bratton, and Gertz, Marc G.. “The Construct Validity and Refinement of Process-Based Policing Measures.” Criminal Justice and Behavior 34, no. 8 (2007): 1005–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robinson, Paul H., and Sarah M. Robinson. Shadow Vigilantes: How Distrust in the Justice System Breeds a New Kind of Lawlessness. Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books, 2018.Google Scholar
Rottman, David B. “Procedural Fairness, Criminal Justice Policy, and the Courts.” In US Criminal Justice Policy: A Contemporary Reader. Edited by Ismaili, Karim, 95–116. Sudbury, MA: Jones & Bartlett, 2010.Google Scholar
Rottman, David B., and Tom Tyler. “Thinking about Judges and Judicial Performance: Perspective of the Public and Court Users.” Onati Socio-Legal Series 4, no. 5 (2014): 1046–70.Google Scholar
Sampson, Robert J., and Dawn Jeglum Bartusch. “Legal Cynicism and (Subcultural?) Tolerance of Deviance: The Neighborhood Context of Racial Differences.” Law & Society Review 32, no. 4 (1998): 777–804.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sandefur, Rebecca L., and Smyth, Aaron. “Access across America: First Report of the Civil Justice Infrastructure Mapping Project.” (2011). Available at SSRN 1962790.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sifrer, Jerneja, Mesko, Gorazd, and Bren, Matevi. “Assessing Validity of Different Legitimacy Constructs Applying Structural Equation Modeling.” In Trust and Legitimacy in Criminal Justice. Edited by Gorazd Mesko and Tankebe, Justice, 161–85. New York: Springer International, 2015.Google Scholar
Skogan, Wesley G., Maarten Van, Craen, and Cari, Hennessy. “Training Police for Procedural Justice.” Journal of Experimental Criminology 11, no. 3 (2015): 319–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Somers, Logan J., and Kristy Holtfreter. “Gender and Mental Health: An Examination of Procedural Justice in a Specialized Court Context.” Behavioral Sciences and the Law 36, no. 1 (2018): 98–115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Standard Eurobarometer. Media Use in the European Union. Standard Eurobarometer 88 (2017). European Commission Directorate-General for Communication.Google Scholar
Steen, Anton. “Confidence in Institutions in Post-Communist Societies: The Case of the Baltic States.” Scandinavian Political Studies 19, no. 3 (1996): 205–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sun, Ivan Y., Yuning, Wu, Jianhong, Liu, and Maarten, Van Craen. “Institutional Procedural Justice and Street Procedural Justice in Chinese Policing: The Mediating Role of Moral Alignment.” Australian & New Zealand Journal of Criminology 52, no. 2 (2019): 272–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sun, Ivan Y., Yuning, Wu, Rong, Hu, and Ashley, Farmer. “Procedural Justice, Legitimacy, and Public Cooperation with Police: Does Western Wisdom Hold in China?” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 54, no. 4 (2017): 454–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sunshine, Jason, and Tyler, Tom R.. “The Role of Procedural Justice and Legitimacy in Shaping Public Support for Policing.” Law & Society Review 37, no. 3 (2003): 513–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Swank, Drew A. “The Pro Se Phenomenon,” BYU Journal of Public Law 19 (2005): 373–86.Google Scholar
Tankebe, Justice. “Public Cooperation with the Police in Ghana: Does Procedural Fairness Matter?” Criminology 47, no. 4 (2009): 1265–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tankebe, Justice, Michael D. Reisig, and Xia Wang. “A Multidimensional Model of Police Legitimacy: A Cross-Cultural Assessment.” Law and Human Behavior 40, no. 1 (2016): 11–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thibaut, John, and Laurens, Walker. Procedural Justice: A Psychological Analysis. Hillsdale, NJ: Halsted Press, 1975.Google Scholar
Tyler, Tom R. “Majority and Minority Perspective on Justice and Trust: Is There a Consensus on Goals?” In Intergroup Misunderstandings: Impact of Divergent Social Realities. Edited by Demoulin, Stephanie, Leyens, Jacques-Phillipe, and John, F. Dovidio, 233–49. New York: Taylor & Francis, 2009.Google Scholar
Tyler, Tom R. “Procedural Justice and the Courts.” Court Review: The Journal of the American Judges Association, 44, nos. 1/2 (2008): 25–31.Google Scholar
Tyler, Tom R. “Procedural Justice and the Courts,” Court Review 44, nos. 1/2 (2007): 26–31.Google Scholar
Tyler, Tom R. “Procedural Justice, Legitimacy, and the Effective Rule of Law.” In Crime and Justice: A Review of Research. Edited by Tonry, Michael, 283–357. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2003.Google Scholar
Tyler, Tom R. “Citizen Discontent with Legal Procedures: A Social Science Perspective on Civil Procedure Reform.” The American Journal of Comparative Law 45, no. 4 (1997): 871–904.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tyler, Tom R. “What is Procedural Justice?: Criteria used by Citizens to Assess the Fairness of Legal Procedures.” Law & Society Review, 22, no.1 (1988): 103–136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tyler, Tom R. “The Role of Perceived Injustice in Defendants’ Evaluations of Their Courtroom Experience.” Law & Society Review 18, no. 1 (1984): 51–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tyler, Tom R., and Justin Sevier. “How Do the Courts Create Popular Legitimacy?: The Role of Establishing the Truth, Punishing Justly, and/or Acting Through Just Procedures.” Albany Law Review 77, no. 3 (2014): 1095–139.Google Scholar
Tyler, Tom R., Anthony, Braga, Jeffrey, Fagan, Tracey, Meares, Robert, Sampson, and Chris, Winship. “Legitimacy and Criminal Justice: International Perspective.” In Legitimacy and Criminal Justice: International Perspectives. Edited by Braga, Anthony, Fagan, Jeffrey, Meares, Tracey, Robert Sampson, Tom R. Tyler, and Chris Winship, 9–29. New York: Russell Sage, 2007.Google Scholar
Tyler, Tom R., and Huo, Yuen. Trust in the Law. Encouraging Public Cooperation with the Police and Courts. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2002.Google Scholar
Tyler, Tom R., and Blader, Steven. Cooperation in Groups: Procedural Justice, Social Identity, and Behavioral Engagement. Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press, 2000.Google Scholar
van den Bos, Kees, van der Valden, Lynn, and E. Allan Lind. “On the Role of Perceived Procedural Justice in Citizens’ Reactions to Government Decisions and the Handling of Conflicts.” Utrecht Law Review 10, no. 4 (2014): 1–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van den Bos, Kees, and Allan Lind, E.. “Uncertainty Management by Means of Fairness Judgments.” In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology. Vol. 34. Edited by Zanna, Mark, 1–60. Cambridge, MA: Academic Press, 2002.Google Scholar
van Ham, Carolien, Jacques JA Thomassen, Kees Aarts, and Rudy B Andeweg. Myth and Reality of the Legitimacy Crisis: Explaining Trends and Cross-National Differences in Established Democracies. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vickrey, William, Claro-Quinn, Nicole, and Wright, Martha. “Courts and Universities Partner to Improve Access to Justice for All Californians,” Future Trends in State Courts. National Center for State Courts, 2011.Google Scholar
Whalan, Jeni. How Peace Operations Work: Power, Legitimacy, and Effectiveness. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woo, Youngki, Maguire, Edward R., and Gau, Jacinta M.. “Direct and Indirect Effects of Procedural Justice on Cooperation and Compliance: Evidence from South Korea.” Police Practice and Research 19, no. 2 (2018): 168–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Worden, Robert E., and McLean, Sarah J.. Mirage of Police Reform. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2017.Google Scholar
Zoll, Fryderyk, and Leah, Wortham. “Judicial Independence and Accountability: Withstanding Political Stress.” Fordham International Law Journal 42, no. 3 (2019): 875–948.Google Scholar