Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-b6zl4 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-09T04:32:22.624Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Perceiving Discrimination: Race, Gender, and Sexual Orientation in the Legal Workplace

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 June 2019

Robert L. Nelson ,
Ioana Sendroiu ,
Ronit Dinovitzer  and
Meghan Dawe
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Using quantitative and qualitative data from a large national sample of lawyers, we examine self-reports of perceived discrimination in the legal workplace. Across three waves of surveys, we find that persons of color, white women, and LGBTQ attorneys are far more likely to perceive they have been a target of discrimination than white men. These differences hold in multivariate models that control for social background, status in the profession and the work organization, and characteristics of the work organization. Qualitative comments describing these experiences reveal that lawyers of different races, genders, and sexual orientations are exposed to distinctive types of bias, that supervisors and clients are the most frequent sources of discriminatory treatment, and the often-overt character of perceived discrimination. These self-reports suggest that bias in the legal workplace is widespread and rooted in the same hierarchies of race, gender, and sexual orientation that pervade society.

Type
Articles
Information
Law & Social Inquiry , Volume 44 , Issue 4 , November 2019 , pp. 1051 - 1082
Copyright
© 2019 American Bar Foundation 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Abel, Richard L. American Lawyers. Los Angeles: Oxford University Press, 1989.Google Scholar
American Bar Association. “ABA National Lawyer Population Survey: 10-Year Trend in Lawyer Demographics.” Chicago, 2017a. https://www.americanbar.org/content/dam/aba/administrative/market_research/National%20Lawyer%20Population%20Demographics%202007-2017.authcheckdam.pdf.Google Scholar
American Bar Association. “A Current Glance at Women in the Law.” Chicago, 2017b. https://www.americanbar.org/content/dam/aba/marketing/women/current_glance_statistics_january2017.authcheckdam.pdf.Google Scholar
American Bar Association. Model Rules of Professional Conduct, 2018. https://www.americanbar.org/groups/professional_responsibility/publications/model_rules_of_professional_conduct/rule_8_4_misconduct/ Google Scholar
Ashley, Louise, and Empson, Laura. “Explaining Social Exclusion and the ‘War for Talent’ in the UK’s Elite Professional Service Firms.” In Diversity in Practice: Race, Gender, and Class in Legal and Professional Careers. Edited by Headworth, Spencer, Nelson, Robert L., Dinovitzer, Ronit, and Wilkins, David, 114–38. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2016.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Auerbach, Jerold S. Unequal Justice: Lawyers and Social Change in Modern America. New York:Oxford University Press, 1976.Google Scholar
Banaji, Mahzarin R., and Greenwald, Anthony G.. Blindspot: Hidden Biases of Good People. New York:Delacorte Press, 2013.Google Scholar
Barnes, Katherine, and Mertz, Elizabeth. “Is It Fair? Law Professors’ Perceptions of Tenure.” Journal of Legal Education 61, no. 4 (2012): 511–39.Google Scholar
Baron, James N., Mittman, Brian S., and Newman, Andrew E.. “Targets of Opportunity: Organizational and Environmental Determinants of Gender Integration within the California Civil Service, 1979–1985.” American Journal of Sociology 96, no. 6 (1991): 1362–401.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berrey, Ellen, Nelson, Robert L., and Nielsen, Laura Beth. Rights on Trial: How Workplace Discrimination Law Perpetuates Inequality. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press (2017).Google Scholar
Bisom-Rapp, Susan. “Bulletproofing the Workplace: Symbol and Substance in Employment Discrimination Law Practice.” Florida State Law Review 26, no. 4 (1999): 959–1049.Google Scholar
Bobo, Lawrence D., and Suh, Susan A.. “Surveying Racial Discrimination: Analyses from a Multiethnic Labor Market.” In Prismatic Metropolis: Inequality in Los Angeles. Edited by Bob, Lawrence D., Oliver, Melvin L., Johnson, James H. Jr., and Valenzuela, Abel Jr., 523–60. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2000.Google Scholar
Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo. “The Invisible Weight of Whiteness: The Racial Grammar of Everyday Life in Contemporary America.” Ethnic & Racial Studies 35, no. 2 (2012): 173–94.Google Scholar
Bourdieu, Pierre. Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984.Google Scholar
Carbado, Devon W., and Gulati, Mitu. Acting White: Rethinking Race in Post-Racial America. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.Google Scholar
Carson, Clara N., and Park, Jeeyoon. The Lawyer Statistical Report: The U.S. Legal Profession in 2005. Chicago: American Bar Foundation, 2012.Google Scholar
Chung, Eric, Dong, Samuel, Hu, Xiaonan April, Kwon, Christine, and Liu, Goodwin. “A Portrait of Asian Americans in the Law.” Yale Law School and National Asian Pacific American Bar Association, 2017. https://static1.squarespace.com/static/59556778e58c62c7db3fbe84/t/596cf0638419c2e5a0dc5766/1500311662008/170716_PortraitProject_SinglePages.pdf.Google Scholar
Cohen, Geoffrey L., Steele, Claude M., and Ross, Lee D.. “The Mentor’s Dilemma: Providing Critical Feedback Across the Racial Divide.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 25, no. 10 (1999): 1302–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collins, Patricia Hill. “Knowledge and Transforming Institutions.” In Emerging Intersections: Race, Class, and Gender in Theory, Policy, and Practice. Edited by Hill, Bonnie Thornton and Zambrana, Ruth Enid, vii–xiii. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2009.Google Scholar
Collins, Todd A., Dumas, Tao L., and Moyer, Laura P.. “Intersecting Disadvantages: Race, Gender, and Age Discrimination Among Attorneys.” Social Science Quarterly 98, no. 5 (2017): 1642–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Correll, Shelley J, Benard, Stephen, and Paik, In. “Getting a Job: Is There a Motherhood Penalty?” American Journal of Sociology 112, no. 5 (2007): 1297–338.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crenshaw, Kimberlé. “Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics.” University of Chicago Legal Forum 1, no. 8 (1989): 139–68.Google Scholar
Cruz, Jill L., and Molina, Melinda S.. “Hispanic National Bar Association National Study on the Status of Latinas in the Legal Profession, Few and Far Between: The Reality of Latina Lawyers.” Pepperdine Law Review 37, no. 3 (2010): 971–1038.Google Scholar
Cuddy, Amy J.C., Fiske, Susan T., and Glick, Peter. “The BIAS Map: Behaviors from Intergroup Affect and Stereotypes.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 92, no. 4 (2007): 631–48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cuddy, Amy J.C., Fiske, Susan T., and Glick, Peter. “When Professionals Become Mothers, Warmth Doesn’t Cut the Ice.” Journal of Social Issues 60, no. 4 (2004): 701–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Coster, Stacy, Estes, Sarah Beth, and Mueller, Charles W.. “Routine Activities and Sexual Harassment in the Workplace.” Work and Occupations 26, no. 1 (1999): 21–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dhir, Aaron A. “What Norway Can Teach the U.S. About Getting More Women into Boardrooms.” The Atlantic (201 5).Google Scholar
DiMaggio, Paul, and Mohr, John. “Cultural Capital, Educational Attainment, and Marital Selection.” American Journal of Sociology 90 (1985) 1231–261.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dinovitzer, Ronit. “The Financial Rewards of Elite Status in the Legal Profession.” Law & Social Inquiry 36, no. 4 (2011): 971–998.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dinovitzer, Ronit, Garth, Bryant G., Sander, Richard, Sterling, Joyce, and Wilder, Gita Z.. “After the JD: First Results of a National Study of Legal Careers.” Chicago: American Bar Foundation and The NALP Foundation for Law Career Research and Education, 2004.Google Scholar
Dinovitzer, Ronit, Garth, Bryant G., Nelson, Robert L., Plickert, Gabriele, Sandefur, Rebecca, Sterling, Joyce S., and Wilkins, David B.. “After the JD III: Third Results from a National Study of Legal Careers.” Chicago: American Bar Foundation and The NALP Foundation for Law Career Research and Education, 2014.Google Scholar
Dinovitzer, Ronit, Reichman, Nancy, and Sterling, Joyce. “The Differential Valuation of Women’s Work: A New Look at the Gender Gap in Lawyers’ Incomes.” Social Forces 88, no. 2 (2009): 819–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dixon, Jo, and Seron, Carroll. “Stratification in the Legal Profession: Sex, Sector, and Salary.” Law & Society Review 29 (1995): 381–412.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Edelman, Lauren B. Working Law: Courts, Corporations, and Symbolic Civil Rights. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 2016.Google Scholar
Epstein, Cynthia Fuchs. Women in Law. New York: Basic Books, 1981.Google Scholar
Epstein, Cynthia Fuchs, and Seron, Carroll. “The Symbolic Meanings of Professional Time.” In Legal Professions: Work, Structure, and Organization. Edited by Van Hoy, Jerry, 79–94. Bingley, UK: Emerald Group, 2001.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feagin, Joe R. Racist America: Roots, Current Realities, and Future Reparations. New York: Routledge, 2000.Google Scholar
Feagin, Joe R.. “The Continuing Significance of Race: Antiblack Discrimination in Public Places.” American Sociological Review 56, no. 1 (1991): 101–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feagin, Joe R., and McKinney, Karyn D.. The Many Costs of Racism. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2003.Google Scholar
Feldman Barrett, Lisa, and Swim, Janet. “Appraisals of Prejudice and Discrimination.” In Prejudice: The Target’s Perspective. Edited by Swim, Janet and Stangor, Charles, 11–36. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1998.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fiske, Susan T. Envy Up, Scorn Down: How Status Divides Us. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2011.Google Scholar
Flores, Mark A. “An NFL Rule Comes to Level the Legal Playing Field.” American Bar Association: Diversity and Inclusion Litigation Committee. November 14, 2017. https://www.americanbar.org/groups/litigation/committees/diversity-inclusion/articles/2017/fall2017-rooney-rule-mansfield-rule.html.Google Scholar
Fryer, Roland G., Pager, Devah, and Spenkuch, Jörg L.. “Racial Disparities in Job Finding and Offered Wages.” The Journal of Law and Economics 56, no. 3 (2013): 633–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
García-López, Gladys. “‘Nunca te Toman en Cuenta [They Never Take You into Account]’: The Challenges of Inclusion and Strategies for Success of Chicana Attorneys.” Gender and Society 22, no. 5 (2008): 590–612.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geraghty, Peter. “ABA Adopts New Anti-Discrimination Rule 8.4(g).” Chicago, 2016. https://www.americanbar.org/publications/youraba/2016/september-2016/aba-adopts-anti-discrimination-rule-8-4-g--at-annual-meeting-in-.html.Google Scholar
Green, Tristin K. “A Structural Approach as Antidiscrimination Mandate: Locating Employer Wrong.” Vanderbilt Law Review 60, no. 3 (2007): 849–904.Google Scholar
Greenwald, Anthony G., and Krieger, Linda Hamilton. “Implicit Bias: Scientific Foundations.” California Law Review 94, no. 4 (2006): 945–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hagan, John, and Kay, Fiona M.. Gender in Practice: A Study of Lawyers’ Lives. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.Google Scholar
Hauser, Robert M., and Warren, John R.. “Socioeconomic Indexes for Occupations: A Review, Update, and Critique.” Sociological Methodology 27 (1997) 177–298.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henderson, William D., and Galanter, Marc. “The Elastic Tournament: The Transformation of the Big Law Firm.” Stanford Law Review 60, no. 6 (2008): 1867–929.Google Scholar
Heinz, John P., and Laumann, Edward O.. Chicago Lawyers: The Social Structure of the Bar. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1982.Google Scholar
Hirsh, Elizabeth, and Kornrich, Sabino. “The Context of Discrimination: Workplace Conditions, Institutional Environments, and Sex and Race Discrimination Charges.” American Journal of Sociology 113, no. 5 (2008): 1394–432.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hirsh, Elizabeth, and Lyons, Christopher J.. “Perceiving Discrimination on the Job: Legal Consciousness, Workplace Context, and the Construction of Race Discrimination.” Law & Society Review 44, no. 2 (2010): 269–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hull, Kathleen E. “Employment Discrimination Based on Sexual Orientation: Dimensions of Difference.” In Handbook of Employment Discrimination Research. Edited by Nielsen, Laura Beth and Nelson, Robert L., 167–87. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer, 2005.Google Scholar
Jæger, Mads M., and Holm, Anders. “Which Background Factors Matter More in Intergenerational Educational Attainment: Social Class, Cultural Capital or Cognitive Ability? A Random Effects Approach.” University of Copenhagen, Institute of Economics, Centre for Applied Microeconometrics, CAM Working Papers, 2003.Google Scholar
Kalev, Alexandra, Dobbin, Frank, and Kelly, Erin. “Best Practices or Best Guesses? Assessing the Efficacy of Corporate Affirmative Action and Diversity Policies.” American Sociological Review 71, no. 4 (2006): 589–617.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kang, Jerry, and Banaji, Mahzarin R.. “Fair Measures: A Behavioral Realist Revision of ‘Affirmative Action.’” California Law Review 94, no. 4 (2006): 1063–118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kay, Fiona M., and Gorman, Elizabeth H.. “Which Kinds of Law Firms Have the Most Minority Lawyers? Organizational Context and the Representation of African-Americans, Latinos, and Asian-Americans.” In Diversity in Practice: Race, Gender, and Class in Legal and Professional Careers. Edited by Headworth, Spencer, Nelson, Robert L., Dinovitzer, Ronit, and Wilkins, David B., 263–300. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2016.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kay, Fiona M., and Gorman, Elizabeth H.. “Women in the Legal Profession.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 4 (2008): 299–332.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kay, Fiona M., and Wallace, Jean E.. “Mentors as Social Capital: Gender, Mentors, and Career Rewards in Law Practice.” Sociological Inquiry 79, no. 4 (2009): 418–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
King, Ryan D., Johnson, Kecia R., and McGeever, Kelly. “Demography of the Legal Profession and Racial Disparities in Sentencing.” Law & Society Review 44, no. 1 (2010): 1–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krieger, Linda Hamilton, and Fisk, Susan T.. “Behavioral Realism in Employment Discrimination Law: Implicit Bias and Disparate Treatment.” California Law Review 94, no. 4 (2006): 997–1062.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ladinsky, Jack. “Careers of Lawyers, Law Practice, and Legal Institutions.” American Sociological Review 28, no. 1 (1963): 47–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lamont, Michèle. “Toward a Comparative Sociology of Valuation and Evaluation.” Annual Review of Sociology 38 (2012): 201–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lempert, Richard, Chambers, David, and Adams, Terry. “Myths and Facts about Affirmative Action.” Arizona Attorney 38, no. 10 (2001): 27–29.Google Scholar
Major, Brenda, and Kaiser, Cheryl R.. “Perceiving and Claiming Discrimination.” In Handbook of Employment Discrimination Research. Edited by Nielsen, Laura Beth and Nelson, Robert L., 285–99. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer, 2005.Google Scholar
Major, Brenda, and Sawyer, Pamela J.. “Attributions to Discrimination: Antecedents and Consequences.” In Handbook of Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination. Edited by Nelson, Tod D., 89–100, New York: Psychology Press, 2009.Google Scholar
McCord, Mallory A., Joseph, Dana L., Dhanani, Lindsay Y., and Beus, Jeremy M.. “A Meta-Analysis of Sex and Race Differences in Perceived Workplace Mistreatment.” Journal of Applied Psychology 103, no. 2 (2018): 137–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLaughlin, Heather, Uggen, Christopher, and Blackstone, Amy. “Sexual Harassment, Workplace Authority, and the Paradox of Power.” American Sociological Review 77, no. 4 (2012): 625–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Michelson, Ethan. “Assessing the Impact of the 2008 Recession on Lawyer Career Opportunities and Trajectories: Comparing Recipients of JDs and Other Advanced Degrees.” Presented at the Law and Society Association Annual Meeting, Mexico City, June 22, 2017.Google Scholar
Mitchell, Gregory, and Tetlock, Philip E.. “Antidiscrimination Law and the Perils of Mindreading.” Ohio State Law Journal 67, no. 5 (2006): 1023–121.Google Scholar
National Association for Law Placement. “2016 Report on Diversity in U.S. Law Firms.” Washington, D.C., 2017. http://www.nalp.org/uploads/Membership/2016NALPReportonDiversityinUSLawFirms.pdf.Google Scholar
National Association for Law Placement. “Employment Rate of New Law Grads Unchanged as Both the Number of Graduates and Number of Jobs Found Decline.” NALP Bulletin, 2016. https://www.nalp.org/1016research.Google Scholar
Neumann, Richard K. Jr. “Women in Legal Education: What the Statistics Show.” Journal of Legal Education 50 (2000): 313–57Google Scholar
Noonan, Mary C., Corcoran, Mary E., and Courant, Paul N.. “Is the Partnership Gap Closing for Women? Cohort Differences in the Sex Gap in Partnership Chances.” Social Science Research 37, no. 1 (2008): 156–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pavalko, Eliza K., Mossakowski, Krysia N., and Hamilton, Vanessa J.. “Does Perceived Discrimination Affect Health? Longitudinal Relationships between Work Discrimination and Women’s Physical and Emotional Health.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 44, no. 1 (2003): 18–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Payne-Pikus, Monique R., Hagan, John, and Nelson, Robert L.. “Experiencing Discrimination: Race and Retention in America’s Largest Law Firms.” Law & Society Review 44, no. 3 (2010): 553–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Phillips, Damon. “Organizational Genealogies and the Persistence of Gender Inequality: The Case of Silicon Valley Law Firms.” Administrative Science Quarterly 50, no. 3 (2005): 440–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pierce, Jennifer L. Gender Trials: Emotional Lives in Contemporary Law Firms. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1995.Google Scholar
Quillian, Lincoln, Pager, Devah, Hexel, Ole, and Midtbøen, Arnfinn H.. “Meta-Analysis of Field Experiments Shows No Change in Racial Discrimination in Hiring over Time.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 114, no. 41 (2017): 10870–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reeves, Aravinda Nadimpalli. “Gender Matters, Race Matters: A Qualitative Analysis of Gender and Race Dynamics in Law Firms.” Dissertation, Northwestern University, 2001.Google Scholar
Reskin, Barbara F., and McBrier, Debra B.. “Why Not Ascription? Organizations’ Employment of Male and Female Managers.” American Sociological Review 65, no. 2 (2000): 210–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rhode, Deborah L. Women and Leadership. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2017.Google Scholar
Rhode, Deborah L.. The Trouble with Lawyers. New York: Oxford University Press, 2015.Google Scholar
Rhode, Deborah L., and Ricca, Lucy Buford. “Diversity in the Legal Profession: Perspectives from Managing Partners and General Counsel.” Fordham Law Review 83, no. 5 (2015): 2483–507.Google Scholar
Ridgeway, Cecilia L., Backor, Kristen, Li, Yan E., Tinkler, Justine E., and Erickson, Kristan G.. “How Easily Does a Social Difference Become a Status Distinction? Gender Matters.” American Sociological Review 74, no. 1 (2009): 44–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ridgeway, Cecilia L., and England, Paula. “Sociological Approaches to Sex Discrimination in Employment.” In Sex Discrimination in the Workplace: Multidisciplinary Perspectives. Edited by Crosby, Faye J., Stockdale, Margaret S., and Ropp, S. Ann, 189–211. Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 2007.Google Scholar
Rivera, Lauren A. Pedigree: How Elite Students Get Elite Jobs. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2016.Google Scholar
Rivera, Lauren, and Tilcsik, András. “Class Advantage, Commitment Penalty: The Gendered Effect of Social Class Signals in an Elite Labor Market.” American Sociological Review 81, no. 6 (2016): 1097–131.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roscigno, Vincent J. The Face of Discrimination: How Race and Gender Impact Work and Home Lives. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2007.Google Scholar
Ruggiero, Karen M., and Major, Brenda N.. “Group Status and Attributions to Discrimination: Are Low- or High-Status Group Members More Likely to Blame Their Failure on Discrimination?” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 24, no. 8 (1998): 821–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Selmi, Michael. “The Paradox of Implicit Bias and a Plea for a New Narrative” (unpublished manuscript). George Washington University Law School Public Research Paper No. 2017-63; George Washington University Legal Studies Research Paper No. 2017-63 (2017). http://ssrn.com/abstract=3026381.Google Scholar
Smigel, Erwin O. The Wall Street Lawyer, Professional Organization Man? Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1969.Google Scholar
Smith, Tom W. “Measuring Racial and Ethnic Discrimination.” GSS Methodological Report 96. Chicago: National Opinion Research Center, University of Chicago, 2002.Google Scholar
Snyder, Thomas D., de Brey, Cristobal, and Dillow, Sally A.. “Digest of Education Statistics 2015.” NCES 2016-014. Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics, 2016. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2016/2016014.pdf.Google Scholar
Sommerlad, Hilary. “‘A Pit to Put Women In’: Professionalism, Work Intensification, Sexualisation and Work-Life Balance in the Legal Profession in England and Wales.” International Journal of the Legal Profession 23, no. 1 (2016): 61–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sperino, Sandra F., and Thomas, Suja A.. Unequal: How America’s Courts Undermine Discrimination Law. New York: Oxford University Press, 2017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steele, Claude M., Spencer, Steven J., and Aronson, Joshua. “Contending with Group Image: The Psychology of Stereotype and Social Identity Threat.” Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 34 (2002): 379–440.Google Scholar
Swim, Janet K., and Sanna, Lawrence J.. “He’s Skilled, She’s Lucky: A Meta-Analysis of Observers’ Attributions for Women’s and Men’s Successes and Failures.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 22, no. 5 (1996): 507–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, David A. “The Truth about Mentoring Minorities: Race Matters.” Harvard Business Review (2001): 98–107.Google ScholarPubMed
Tilcsik, András. “Pride and Prejudice: Employment Discrimination against Openly Gay Men in the United States.” American Journal of Sociology 117, no. 2 (2011): 586–626.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Uggen, Christopher, and Blackstone, Amy. “Sexual Harassment as a Gendered Expression of Power.” American Sociological Review 69 (2004): 64–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wallace, Jean E., and Kay, Fiona M.. “Tokenism, Organizational Segregation, and Coworker Relations in Law Firms.” Social Problems 59, no. 3 (2012): 389–410.Google Scholar
Wax, Amy L. “Discrimination as Accident.” Indiana Law Journal 74, no. 4 (1999): 1129–231.Google Scholar
Webley, Lisa, Tomlinson, Jennifer, Muzio, Daniel, Sommerlad, Hilary, and Duff, Liz. “Access to a Career in the Legal Profession in England and Wales: Race, Class and the Role of Educational Background.” In Diversity in Practice: Race, Gender, and Class in Legal and Professional Careers. Edited by Headworth, Spencer, Nelson, Robert L., Dinovitzer, Ronit, and Wilkins, David, 198–225. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2016.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weiss, Debra Cassens. “Law Firms Test ‘Mansfield Rule’ to Help Promote More Women and Minorities into Leadership Roles.” American Bar Association Journal. June 12, 2017. http://www.abajournal.com/news/article/law_firms_test_mansfield_rule_to_promote_more_women_and_minorities_into_lea.Google Scholar
Welsh, Sandy, Carr, Jacquie, MacQuarrie, Barbara, and Huntley, Audrey. “‘I’m Not Thinking of It as Sexual Harassment’: Understanding Harassment across Race and Citizenship.” Gender & Society 20, no. 1 (2006): 87–107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilkins, David B., and Gulati, Mitu. “Why Are There So Few Black Lawyers in Corporate Law Firms? An Institutional Analysis.” California Law Review 84, no. 3 (1996): 493–625.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilkins, David B., and Kim, Young-Kyu. “The Action after the Call: What General Counsels Say about the Value of Diversity in Legal Purchasing Decisions in the Years Following the ‘Call to Action.’” In Diversity in Practice: Race, Gender, and Class in Legal and Professional Careers. Edited by Headworth, Spencer, Nelson, Robert L., Dinovitzer, Ronit, and Wilkins, David B., 37–80. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2016.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, Patricia J. The Alchemy of Race and Rights. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991.Google Scholar
Wilson, George, and McBrier, Debra Branch. “Race and Loss of Privilege: African American/White Differences in the Determinants of Job Layoffs from Upper-Tier Occupations.” Sociological Forum 20, no. 2 (2005): 301–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yoshino, Kenji. Covering: The Hidden Assault on Our Civil Rights. New York: Random House, 2006.Google Scholar