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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 07 May 2021
This article examines Zionist/Israeli comparisons and connections to India and Pakistan between 1945 and 1955. While Zionists found striking similarities between the unfolding realities in Palestine/Israel and South Asia, the exact nature of the comparison was quite equivocal. On the diplomatic axis, Israelis sought to establish full diplomatic relations with India by underscoring the similarity of their two nations. Here, comparisons were a way of positioning Israel as an analogue of India. On the technocratic axis, Israelis looked to Pakistan as a model for constructing legal institutions to expropriate Palestinian property. The appeal of Pakistan as a model was due to a perceived glaring difference: Pakistan was a Muslim state, Israel the Jewish State. Meanwhile, as Zionists/Israelis looked to India and Pakistan, Indians returned the gaze. Indian technocrats found the methods Israel used to resettle Jewish refugees and immigrants worthy of emulation. When they came to Israel to study these resettlement efforts, they were-unknowingly-often looking at projects that had been built upon former Palestinian land which the Israeli government had seized using the transplanted Pakistani law-the very same laws that had dispossessed India's new citizens, whom the technocrats were seeking to resettle. This article ultimately uncovers a broader post-imperial technocratic sphere in which nascent states continued to transplant legal institutions developed in other parts of the former colonial world to construct their own.
The author thanks Arie Dubnov, Caroline Kahlenberg, Sandy Kedar, Gili Kliger, Aden Knaap, Jim Loeffler, Charlie Maier, Sam Moyn, Derek Penslar, Gil Rubin, Naghmeh Sohrabi, and Josef Stern, as well as the anonymous LHR referees, for their comments and suggestions. Earlier versions of this article were presented at a workshop titled “South Asia in 1947: Broadening Perspectives” at the Institute for Historical Research in London in June 2017, at the Annual Meeting of the Israeli History and Law Association in Jerusalem in October 2017, at the Annual Meeting of the Association for Jewish Studies in Washington, DC in December 2017, at a workshop titled “Revising the Geographies of Modern World Histories” at the University of York in February 2018, at a workshop titled “1948: The Jewish Quest for Rights and Justice in the Postwar Moment” at Brandeis University in April 2018, and at a workshop titled “Unacknowledged Kinships: Postcolonial Studies and the Historiography of Zionism” at Goethe University in Frankfurt in June 2018. The author also thanks the Posen Society of Fellows, the Israel Institute, and Harvard's Center for Jewish Studies and Weatherhead Center for International Affairs for funding for this work.
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13. See Noor-Aiman I. Khan, Egyptian-Indian Nationalist Collaboration and the British Empire (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011).
14. See Rephael G. Stern and Arie M. Dubnov, “(A)part from Asia: Zionist Perceptions of Asia, 1947–1956),” in Unacknowledged Kinships: Postcolonial Studies and the Historiography of Zionism, ed. Stefan Vogt, Derek J. Penslar, and Arieh Saposnik (Berkeley: University of California Press, forthcoming, 2021).
15. Gideon Shimoni, Gandhi, Satyagraha, and the Jews: A Formative Factor in India's Policy towards Israel (Jerusalem: Hebrew University, 1977).
16. “Ve'idat Nu Delhi,” ‘al-Hamishmar, March 24, 1947, 4; Central Zionist Archives (hereafter CZA) S25/3536, November 20, 1945, Pollack to Heyd; Israel State Archive (hereafter ISA) HZ-34-92, January 31, 1946 L. Gelber to Jewish Agency Executive; ISA HZ-34-92, May 16, 1947, Adelson to Robinson. Taraknath Das, a former Indian revolutionary exiled during the Ghadar Revolt, prodded many Zionist activists to reach out to Indian nationalist leaders. See, for example, CZA S25/9029, May 8, 1947, Das to Epstein.
17. Asian Relations, Being Report of the Proceedings and Documentation of the First Asian Relations Conference, New Delhi, March-April, 1947 (New Delhi: Asian Relations Organization, 1948), 56.
18. Ephraim Broido, “The Destiny of Two Nations,” India and Israel 2 (1949): 29–30.
19. Michael Fuss, Asia, Think Again!: State of Israel Reconsidered (Bombay: M. Fuss, 1948), 10.
20. Bracha Habas, “Mikhtavim me-hodu,” Davar, April 7, 1947, 2.
21. J. Borisov, Palestine Underground: The Story of the Jewish Resistance (New York: Judea, 1947), 144.
22. See, for example, “Avira eretzyisraelit be-‘Shviets ha-Asiyatit,’” Ma'ariv, June 15, 1950, 2.
23. Captain Rajendra Nath, “With 30,000 Indian Soldiers in Palestine,” India and Israel, June-July 1950, 28.
24. See Bialer, Between East and West, 31; and ISA HZ-2/2441, August 11, 1949, Eytan to R. Shiloah.
25. Broido, “The Destiny of Two Nations,” 30.
26. CZA S46/631, September 27, 1944, Y. Klinov. See Cemil Aydin, The Idea of the Muslim World: A Global Intellectual History (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2017).
27. CZA S25/9029, March 3, 1948, untitled memorandum.
28. A. Dirk Moses, “Partitions, Hostages, Transfer: Retributive Violence and National Security,” in Partitions, 268; and Dmitry Shumsky, Beyond the Nation-State: The Zionist Political Imagination from Pinsker to Ben-Gurion (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2018), 231.
29. CZA S90/302, April 30, 1947, Alfred Bonne, “Supplementary notes to the Report of the Delegation on the Inter-Asian Conference in New Delhi.” Likewise, in an internal memorandum written in 1947 (most likely following the June 3 British announcement that it would partition colonial India), Jacob Robinson sought to dispel the parallel between the two proposed partitions. CZA S25/9029, undated, Jacob Robinson, “Partition of India Implication for Palestine.”
30. Ginat, Rami, “India and the Palestine Question: The Emergence of the Asio-Arab Bloc and India's Quest for Hegemony in the Post-Colonial Third World,” Middle Eastern Studies 40 (2004): 189–218CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
31. Rahman initially called for a unitary Arab-majority state, but eventually supported the UNSCOP minority proposal for a federal Palestine. Kumaraswamy, India's Israel Policy, 96–97; and CZA S25/8012, August 14, 1947, Abdur Rahman to Judge Sandstrok.
32. ISA HZ-30/2385, December 26, 1950, T. Arazi to E. Sasson.
33. ISA HZ-1/2414, March 25, 1952, E. Eilat to W. Eytan.
34. See Joseph Hodes, From India to Israel: Identity, Immigration, and the Struggle for Religious Equality (Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 2014), 105–20.
35. ISA HZ-1/2414, July 20, 1954, Eytan to All Israeli Diplomats Abroad.
36. ISA HZ-29/2413, September 27, 1954, Y. Ariel to W. Eytan.
37. CZA S90/303, April 17, 1947, Ya'akov Shimoni, Report on the Interasian Conference, 12.
38. Kumaraswamy, India's Israel Policy, 133; CZA S90/303, September 8, 1953, Eilat to Eytan; ISA HZ-14/71, June 23, 1949, Aide Memoire Conversation between A. Eban and B.N. Rau; ISA HZ-1/2414, August 14, 1951 Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit to A. Eban; ISA HZ-29/2413, December 5, 1952, E. Elath to Israeli Foreign Ministry, Commonwealth Division; ISA HZ-29/2413, March 12, 1953, G. Avner to W. Eytan.
39. Hemonta Kumar Tarafder, Palestine, India and Pan-Islamism (New York: n.p., 1948), 8, 10.
40. Quoted in Prafulla K. Chakrabarti, The Marginal Men: The Refugees and the Left Political Syndrome in West Bengal (Kalyani, West Bengal: Lumière Books, 1990), 24.
41. ISA HZ-10/38, August 29, 1949, Plight of Minorities in East Bengal: Demand for “Separate Secular” State.
42. Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, Hindutva: Who Is a Hindu? 5th ed. (Bombay: S. S. Savarkar, 1969), 136–37.
43. ISA HZ-10-38, July 28, 1949, Council for Protection of Rights of Minorities to Weizman; ISA HZ-29/370, September 16, 1949, Maha Sahba Statement.
44. E. S. Reddy, “The Jew and the Arab: Discussion with Mr. Silverman and Mr. Honick, March 1946, report by Pyarelal from Louis Fischer papers,” in http://gandhiserve.org/information/writings_online/articles/Gandhi_jews_palestine.html, quoted in Devji, Muslim Zion, 13–16.
45. Ibid., 18; Faisal Devji, “From Minority to Nation” in Partitions.
46. CZA S90/695, March 1944, Uriel Heyd, “Pakistan the Muslim-Hindu Problem in India.”
47. Quoted in Lucy Chester, “‘Close Parallels’? Interrelated Discussions of Partition in South Asia and the Palestine Mandate (1936–1948)” in Partitions, 146.
48. Quoted in ibid., 144.
49. P.R. Kumaraswamy, “Beyond the Veil: Israel-Pakistan Relations,” Memorandum no. 55 (Tel Aviv: Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies, Tel Aviv University, March 2000), 23.
50. “Tkhakhim le-hakhshalat ha-ve'ida ha-kol-Asiyatit,” ‘al-Hamishmar, March 24, 1947, 2.
51. CZA S90/695, March 1944, Uriel Heyd, “Pakistan the Muslim-Hindu Problem in India.”
52. Vazira Fazila-Yacoobali Zamindar, The Long Partition and the Making of Modern South Asia: Refugees, Boundaries, Histories (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007), 123.
53. Ayesha Jalal, Democracy and Authoritarianism in South Asia: A Comparative and Historical Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 22–23.
54. West Punjab Economic Rehabilitation Ordinance (West Punjab Act IV of 1947), West Punjab Gazette, September 10, 1947. See also West Punjab Evacuee Property (Preservation) Ordinance, 1947, West Punjab Gazette Extraordinary, September 11, 1947; Amtul Hassan, Impact of Partition: Refugees in Pakistan: Struggle for Empowerment and State's Response (Colombo: Regional Centre for Strategic Studies; New Delhi: Manohar Publishers & Distributors, 2006), 30; and Saleem Ullah Khan, The Journey to Pakistan: Documentation on Refugees of 1947 (Islamabad: National Documentation Centre, 1993), 323.
55. See similar regulations passed in Baluchistan. Baluchistan Economic Rehabilitation Regulation, 1948 (Regulation II of 1948), Gazette of Pakistan Extraordinary, March 3, 1948, 115–18.
56. East Punjab Evacuees' (Administration of Property) Act, 1947 (East Punjab Act XIV of 1947). See also India Ministry of Rehabilitation, Concerning Evacuee Property, 1–10, 18; Zamindar, The Long Partition, 123.
57. On parallels to postwar Europe, see Gerard Daniel Cohen, In War's Wake: Europe's Displaced Persons in the Postwar Order (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), ch. 2.
58. Rohit De, “Evacuee Property and the Management of Economic Life in Postcolonial India,” in The Postcolonial Moment in South and Southeast Asia, ed. Gyan Prakash, Michael Laffan, and Nikhil Menon (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2018), 91.
59. Yasmin Khan, The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2017), 187. I thank the anonymous reviewer for pointing this out.
60. The Administration of Evacuee Property Act, 1950, §19 (3) (XXXI of 1950), India Code, April 17, 1950, 1121; Pakistan Administration of Evacuee Property (Amendment) Act, 1951, §(2)(a)(3A) (VI of 1951), The Gazette of Pakistan Extraordinary, April 21, 1951, 252.
61. Zamindar, The Long Partition, 126.
62. Pakistan (Protection of Evacuee Property) Ordinance, 1948 (XVIII of 1948), The Gazette of Pakistan Extraordinary, October 18, 1948, 487–98; and Pakistan (Economic Rehabilitation) Ordinance, 1948 (XIX of 1948), The Gazette of Pakistan Extraordinary, October 18, 1948, 499–507.
63. Pakistan (Protection of Evacuee Property) Ordinance, 1948, §1(2); and Pakistan (Economic Rehabilitation) Ordinance, 1948, §1(2).
64. Pakistan (Economic Rehabilitation) Ordinance, 1948, §7
65. Zamindar, The Long Partition, 121.
66. It seems that the Indian government considered enacting a central law to this effect, but ultimately found that it could not. See India Ministry of Rehabilitation, Concerning Evacuee Property, 51. India eventually extended the legislation to the entirety of its territory, except for the eastern provinces of Assam, West Bengal, Tripura, Manipur, and Jammu and Kashmir. The Administration of Evacuee Property Act, 1950, §1(2), (XXXI of 1950), India Code (1950).
67. Pakistan (Protection of Evacuee Property) Ordinance, 1948, §1(3); and Pakistan (Economic Rehabilitation) Ordinance 1948, §1(3).
68. Pakistan (Protection of Evacuee Property) Ordinance, 1948, §13–14, 23; and Pakistan (Economic Rehabilitation) Ordinance, 1948, §13, 15–16.
69. India Ministry of External Affairs and Commonwealth Relations, Agreements between India and Pakistan Reached at Inter-Dominion Conferences Held at New Delhi in Dec. 1948, Calcutta in April 1948, and Karachi in May 1948, and Some Related Documents ([New Delhi?]: Government of India, Ministry of External Affairs and Commonwealth Relations, 1949), 43.
70. These included Emergency Regulations (Abandoned Property), 5708-1948, Official Gazette of the Provisional Government of the State of Israel 6 supp. B, June 23, 1948, 11–12; and Abandoned Areas Ordinance, No. 12, 5708-1948, Official Gazette of the Provisional Government of the State of Israel 7 supp. A, June 30, 1948, 19. See Arnon Golan, “The Transfer to Jewish Control of Abandoned Arab Lands during the War of Independence,” in Israel: The First Decade of Independence, eds. S. Ilan Troen and Noah Lucas (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995), 403–40.
71. See Announcement Regarding Replacements of Members of the Provisional State Council, Official Gazette of the Provisional Government of the State of Israel 10, July 21, 1948, 56. Dov Shafrir was announced to be the custodian for abandoned property in accordance with the Abandoned Areas Ordinance (even though there was no provision or existing regulation providing for the creation of a custodian).
72. Emergency Regulations for the Cultivation of Fallow Lands and for the Use of Unused Water Sources, 5708-1948, Official Gazette of the Provisional Government of the State of Israel 27 supp. B, October 15, 1948, 3–8.
73. ISA GL-9/17116, March 17, 1949, M. Comay to P. Azcarate.
74. Benny Morris, “Yosef Weitz and the Transfer Committees, 1948–49,” Middle Eastern Studies 22 (1986): 531.
75. Golan, “The Transfer to Jewish Control,” 410.
76. Morris, “Yosef Weitz and the Transfer Committees,” 549.
77. Quoted from ibid., 546.
78. Morris does not mention Schechtman's involvement in the second iteration.
79. For more on Schechtman's biography see, for example, Gil Rubin, “Vladimir Jabotinsky and Population Transfers Between Eastern Europe and Palestine,” The Historical Journal 62 (2019): 495–517.
80. Jabotinsky Institute Archives (hereafter JAB) P227-10/2, May 18, 1948, Epstein to Schechtman. It should be noted that the two had already corresponded as early as 1946. See CZA L35/99, May 1946, Schechtman to Epstein.
81. ISA GL-9/17116, February 25, 1949, Aide Memoirs summarizing information conveyed to Mr. McDonald by Mr. Ezra Danin during a conversation on the question of Arab refugees.
82. JAB P227-10/2, December 6, 1948, Schechtman to Danin.
83. ISA GL-1/17116, undated, Flight, Return and Evacuation of Germans from the Recovered Territories.
84. ISA GL-1/17116, undated, Pro and Contra Population Transfer. Although the memorandum does not state the name of the author, it is clear that it is Schechtman. On page 6, Eugene Kulischer is referred to as the colleague of the author. Schechtman and Kulischer were indeed colleagues at the Office of Strategic Services.
85. Kedar, “Expanding Legal Geographies.”
86. ISA GL-8/17116, July 13, 1949, Ben Shemesh to Lifshitz.
87. ISA G-23/5423, March 18, 1949, Memo on Legislation of Absentee Property, 4.
88. ISA GL-8/17116, Juy. 13, 1949, Ben Shemesh to Lifshitz.
89. Ibid.
90. Ibid.
91. ISA K-8/22, April 5, 1949, Session No. 2 of Finance Committee, 3.
92. Divre Ha-Keneset Meeting 88, November 22, 1949, 139.
93. Elie Podeh, “The Desire to Belong Syndrome: Israel and Middle-Eastern Defense, 1948–1954,” Israel Studies 4 (1999), 122.
94. See Divre Ha-Keneset Meeting 88, November. 22, 1949; ibid., Meeting 89, November 23, 1949, 150.
95. Ibid., Meeting 89, November. 23, 1949, 164.
96. See Absentees’ Property Law, 5710-1950, §4 (1950) (Isr.).
97. Shalom Yifrah, “Nikhse nifkadim,” Ha-Praklit 6 (1949): 92–93; and Haim Bental, “le-Havharat demut ha-takanot bi-dvar nikhse nifkadim,” Ha-Praklit 6 (1949): 150–52.
98. Pakistan (Protection of Evacuee Property) Ordinance, 1948, §2(b).
99. Absentees’ Property Law, 5710-1950, §1(b) (1950) (Isr.).
100. 1948 Pakistan (Protection of Evacuee Property) Ordinance §2(e); and Absentees’ Property Law, 5710-1950, §1(a) (Isr.).
101. Sreemati Mitter, “A History of Money in Palestine: From the 1900s to the Present” (PhD diss., Harvard University, 2014), ch. 3–4.
102. Pakistan (Protection of Evacuee Property) Ordinance, 1948, §§13-14, 23; and Absentees’ Property Law, 5710-1950, §§10(c), 11(d), 12(d), 12(e)(3), 18(a) (Isr.).
103. Development Authority (Transfer of Property) Law, 5710-1950 (Isr.).
104. Ibid., §1.
105. Ibid., §3(4)(a).
106. Ibid., §3(4)(b)-(c).
107. ISA HZ-2/309, August 26, 1951, Shimoni to Pollack.
108. Derek J. Penslar, Zionism and Technocracy: The Engineering of Jewish Settlement in Palestine, 1870–1918 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991), 94–98.
109. CZA S25/9029, April 2, 1948, Nasir-ul-Hassan to Herman.
110. ISA HZ-4/309, October 19, 1950, Pollack to Shimoni.
111. ISA HZ-226/1, January 19, 1954, V. Fischel to E. Doron.
112. ISA GL-8/17114, January 1949, The Resettlement of Refugees, 13.
113. Ibid., 14.
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121. CZA S90/303, April 14, 1947, Ya'akov Shimoni, Report on the Interasian Conference, 5.
122. See ISA HZ-14/71, June 24, 1949, Eban to B.N. Rau; ibid., August 29, 1949, Pollack to Shimoni; ISA HZ-7/345, June 20, 1951, Eban to V. Pandit; and ISA HZ-29/2413, December 5, 1952, Elath to MABAR.
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124. ISA HZ-1/2414, April 18, 1952, Eytan to Agit [sic] Prasad Jain. Apparently, Pant was already interested in Israeli rehabilitation efforts in 1951. ISA HZ-2/309, April 13, 1951, Shimoni to Pollack.
125. ISA HZ-2/309, May 9, 1951, Shimoni to Pollack; and ibid., August 5, 1951, Shimoni to Pollack.
126. M. S Randhawa, Out of the Ashes; an Account of the Rehabilitation of Refugees from West Pakistan in Rural Areas of East Punjab ([Chandigarh?]: n.p., 1954), 146.
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128. Siegel, “The Kibbutz and the Ashram.”
129. K.G. Sivaswamy, “Community Development in Israel,” The India Quarterly 11 (1955): 170; and ISA HZ -2/292, July 2, 1953, Doron to Harman.
130. Sivaswamy, “Community Development in Israel,” 172.
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