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Sovereignty and the Laws of War: International Consequences of Japan's 1905 Victory over Russia

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 February 2011

Douglas Howland
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The Russo–Japanese War (1904–1905), recently commemorated with several international conference volumes, is identified by a majority of contributors as the first modern, global war. In making such a judgment, these scholars note its scale, its nationalism, its colonialism and geopolitical repercussions. What is surprising, however, is that no one has remarked on another significance: it was the first war in which both belligerents pledged to adhere to the international laws of war. In that regard, the Russo–Japanese War marks a culmination of the tireless international diplomacy to secure legal limitations on warfare in the nineteenth century. In 1904, both Russia and Japan justified their operations according to international law, for the benefit of an international audience who had five years earlier celebrated some progress with the signing of The Hague Conventions in 1899.

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Law and History Review , Volume 29 , Issue 1 , February 2011 , pp. 53 - 97
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Copyright © the American Society for Legal History, Inc. 2011

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64. Hull, The Two Hague Conferences, 124–26; Scott, The Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and 1907 (1909), vol. 1: 608–10; Higgins, The Hague Peace Conferences, 390; and Leroux, Le droit international, 206f.

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68. Seaman, From Tokio through Manchuria with the Japanese, 175f.

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73. Scott, The Hague Conventions and Declarations of 1899 and 1907 (1918), 133, 209.

74. Ibid., 133; and Higgins, The Hague Peace Conferences, 291.

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84. Lawrence, War and Neutrality in the Far East, 2nd ed., 23.

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87. Kim Ki-Jung, “The War and US-Korean Relations,” in The Russo-Japanese War in Global Perspective: World War Zero, vol. 2, 467–89. See also Claude MacDonald to the British Foreign Office, December 29, 1903, in British Documents on Foreign Affairs: Reports and Papers from the Foreign Office Confidential Print, Part I, Series E, Volume 8, Ian Nish, ed., The Russo-Japanese War, 1904-1905 (n.p.: University Publications of America, 1993), 159; Dennett, Tyler, Roosevelt and the Russo-Japanese War (Garden City: Doubleday, Page, & Co., 1925), 96–117Google Scholar; the Katsura-Taft Agreement of July 1905 in NGM, vol. 49, 448–52; Teramoto, Nichi-ro sensō igo no Nihon gaikō, 116–27; and United States Secretary of State Elihu Root's note to Japanese authorities on United States severance of relations with Korea in NGM, vol. 49, 673–75.

88. According to Ariga Nagao, Korea would have signed the protocol a month earlier, had Russia not protested; see La guerre Russo-Japonaise, 56. Japanese diplomatic records of the February 23 agreement are reprinted in NGM, vol. 47, 333–49.

89. English translations of the agreements are available in McKenzie, The Tragedy of Korea, 269–310; and The Carnegie Endowment for Peace, Korea: Treaties and Agreements (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for Peace, 1921)Google ScholarPubMed, Pamphlet Series no. 43. Japanese versions and diplomatic records are reprinted in NGM, vol. 47, 350–79, and vol. 49, 519–89. The diplomacy is reviewed in Kajima, Nichi-Ro sensō, 230–70.

90. Huajeong Seok, “Russo-Japanese Negotiations and the Japanese Annexation of Korea,” in Rethinking the Russo-Japanese War, 1904–05, vol. 2, 401–12; Teramoto, Nichi-ro sensō igo no Nihon gaikō, passim; and Yasutoshi Teramoto, “Japanese Diplomacy Before and After the War,” in The Treaty of Portsmouth and Its Legacies, ed. Ericson and Hockley, 24–40.

91. Rey, Francis, “La situation international de la Corée,” Revue générale de droit international public 13 (1906): 40–58Google Scholar. A recent critique of the treaties likewise raises formal errors; see Fukuju, Unno, “Kankoku heigō jōyaku-tō kyū-jōyaku mukōsetsu to kokusaihō – jōyaku no keishiki to teiketsu teitsuzuki nitsuite,” Nihon shokuminchi kenkyū 14 (June 2002): 21–33Google Scholar.

92. Murase, Shinya, “The Presence of Asia at the 1907 Hague Conference,” in Actualité de la Conférence de La Haye de 1907, Deuxième Conférence de la Paix, ed. Daudet, Yves (Leiden: Nijhoff, 2008), 85–101Google Scholar; Dudden, Alexis, Japan's Colonization of Korea: Discourse and Power (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 2005), 7–20Google Scholar; and Kim and Kim, Korea and the Politics of Imperialism, 144f. By 1919, the protectorate status of Korea was an unproblematic fact in international law, in spite of United States President Wilson's rhetoric encouraging an independence movement in Korea; see Willoughby, W. W. and Fenwick, C. G., Types of Restricted Sovereignty and of Colonial Autonomy (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1919), 55f.Google Scholar; and Manela, Erez, The Wilsonian Moment: Self-Determination and the International Origins of Anticolonial Nationalism (N.Y.: Oxford University Press, 2007), 119–35, 197–213Google Scholar.

93. Smith [Birkenhead] and Sibley, International Law as Interpreted, 461; and NGM, vol. 51, 450–53. The Japanese–French diplomacy is reprinted in NGM, vol. 51, 443–599.

94. de Lapradelle, Albert, “La nouvelle thèse du refus de charbon aux belligérants dans les eaux neutres,” Revue générale de droit international public 11 (1904): 531–64Google Scholar; Smith [Birkenhead] and Sibley, International Law as Interpreted, 129f.; Hershey, The International Law and Diplomacy, 202f.; Lawrence, War and Neutrality in the Far East, 2nd ed., 126–32; and Nagaoka, “Étude sur la guerre Russo-Japonaise,” 630.

95. Hall, William Edward, A Treatise on International Law, 8th ed. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1924), 724–27Google Scholar; and Oppenheim, International Law: A Treatise, 3rd ed., vol. 2, 453–56.

96. Benton, Elbert J., International Law and Diplomacy of the Spanish-American War (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1908), 190–94Google Scholar; and Scott, James Brown, ed., Resolutions of the Institute of International Law Dealing with the Law of Nations (N.Y.: Oxford University Press, 1916)Google Scholar, 154f.

97. Foreign Office to MacDonald, November 9, 1904, in British Foreign Office Archives, F.O. 46/634: [149f.]; Foreign Office to MacDonald, December 14, 1904, in F.O. 46/635: [266f.]; “Memorandum Communicated to Viscount Hayashi,” December 13, 1904, in F.O. 46/636: [246]; and NGM, vol. 51, 690–704.

98. For Denmark, see Foreign Office to Lieck (?), December 10, 1904, in F.O. 46/635: [170]; on Spain, see Algerton (?) to Foreign Office, December 22, 1904, in F.O. 46/635: [440]; MacDonald to Lansdowne, November 15, 1904, in F.O. 46/635: [476-81]; and Lansdowne to Nicolson, March 1, 1905, in F.O. 46/637: [240f.].

99. NGM, vol. 51, 487–506; MacDonald to Lansdowne, November 17, 1904, in F.O. 46/634: [257]; and MacDonald to Lansdowne, November 15, 1904, in F.O. 46/635: [476–81]. See also Patrick Beillevaire, “Preparing for the Next War: French Diplomacy and the Russo-Japanese War,” in Rethinking the Russo-Japanese War, 1904-05, vol 2, 73–87; and Kajima, Nichi-Ro sensō, 195–218.

100. See translation from Jiji shimpō, November 11, 1904, in F.O. 46/635: [482–86]; MacDonald to Lansdowne, November 17, 1904, in F.O. 46/635: [487f.]; and translation from Tokyo Asahi, November 17, 1904, in F.O. 46/635: [489].

101. MacDonald to Lansdowne, November 15, 1904, in F.O. 46/635: [476–81].

102. Suematsu, The Risen Sun, 298–311.

103. Monson to Lansdowne, November 19, 1904, in F.O. 46/636: [22]; and Hershey, The International Law and Diplomacy, 194–97.

104. Lapradelle, “La nouvelle thèse du refus de charbon,” 537f. (esp. 538n5); Hershey, The International Law and Diplomacy, 197; Lawrence, War and Neutrality in the Far East, 2nd ed., 120–24; Smith [Birkenhead] and Sibley, International Law as Interpreted, 459–63; T. Martens, “Extract from the Journal de Saint-Pétersbourg,” May 10, 1905, in F.O. 46/639: [115f.], and Prime Minister Alfred Balfour, in “The Appropriation Bill,” Times (London), August 12, 1904, 5.

105. Nagaoka, “Étude sur la guerre Russo-Japonaise,” 625–30.

106. NGM, vol. 51, 506–10, 518–34; Bunsen to Lansdowne, January 6, 1905, in F.O. 46/636: [86]; Lansdowne to Bertie, January 11, 1905, in F.O. 46/636: [160]; Lansdowne to MacDonald, January 11, 1905, in F.O. 46/636: [166]; MacDonald to Lansdowne, January 17, 1905, in F.O. 46/636: [183]; and Hershey, The International Law and Diplomacy, 192–94. On the passage and demise of the Baltic Fleet, see Herwig Lorenz, Krieg im Gelben Meer: Der Russisch-Japanische Krieg 1904-1905 (n.p., 2005),104–46, 156–76; Saburō, Toyama, Nichi-Ro kaisen shinshi (Tokyo: Tokyo shuppan, 1987), 205–24Google Scholar; Westwood, J. N., Russia against Japan, 1904-05 (London: Macmillan, 1986), 137–51Google Scholar; and Yasushi, Toyoda, Nisshin - Nichi-Ro sensō [Nihon no taigai sensō: Meiji] (Tokyo: Bungeisha, 2009), 339–43, 360–63Google Scholar.

107. Deuxième Conférence Internationale de la Paix, Actes et documents, vol. 3, 460–63.

108. Hull, The Two Hague Conferences, 150–56; and Scott, The Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and 1907 (1909), vol. 1, 634–44.

109. Scott, , The Hague Conventions and Declarations of 1899 and 1907 (1918), 213Google Scholar.

110. Ariga, La guerre Russo-Japonaise, and Takahashi, International Law Applied to the Russo-Japanese War, understandably praise Japanese conduct, but see also Paul Fauchille, “Préface,” in Ariga, vii; Hershey, The International Law and Diplomacy, 301, 319–24; and Smith [Birkenhead] and Sibley, International Law as Interpreted, 8f.