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2. Brown-Nagin, Tomiko, Courage to Dissent: Atlanta and the Long History of the Civil Rights Movement (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

3. Laura Weinrib, The Taming of Free Speech (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016); Sophia Z. Lee, The Workplace Constitution from the New Deal to the New Right (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014); and Jeremy Kessler, “The Early Years of First Amendment Lochnerism,” Columbia Law Review 116 (2016): 1915–2004.

4. Kim Phillips-Fein, “Business Conservatism on the Shop Floor: Anti-Union Campaigns in the 1950s,” Labor: Studies in Working-Class History of the Americas 7 (2010): 9–26.

5. New Negro Alliance v. Sanitary Grocery Co., 303 U.S. 552 (1938).

6. Hughes v. Superior Court, 339 U.S. 460 (1950).

7. International Brotherhood of Teamsters v. Hanke, and Automobile Drivers Local Union No. 882 v. Cline, 339 U.S. 470 (1950); Building Service Employees International Union v. Gazzam, 339 U.S. 432 (1950); and Justice Tom Clark Papers, Supreme Court Case Files, October Term 1949, Box A3, Folder 1.

8. Paul D. Moreno, From Direct Action to Affirmative Action: Fair Employment Law and Policy in America, 1933–1972 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1997); Mark Brilliant, The Color of America Has Changed: How Racial Diversity Shaped Civil Rights Reform in California, 1941–1978 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 120–22; Frederick White, “Justice Carter's Dissent in Hughes v. Superior Court of Contra Costa County: Harbinger of the 60s Civil Rights Movement and Affirmative Action?” in The Great Dissents of the “Lone Dissenter,” ed. David B. Oppenheimer and Allan Brotsky (Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 2010), 59–69; David Freeman Engstrom, “The Lost Origins of American Fair Employment Law: Regulatory Choice and the Making of Modern Civil Rights, 1943–1972,” Stanford Law Review 63 (2011): 1129–30; Paul D. Moreno, “Direct Action and Fair Employment: The Hughes Case,” Western Legal History 8 (1995): 1–34; and David B. Oppenheimer, “Dr. King's Dream of Affirmative Action,” Harvard Latinx Law Review 21 (2018): 55–86.

9. Moreno, “Direct Action and Fair Employment,” 33.

10. Charles W. Romney, Rights Delayed: The American State and the Defeat of Progressive Unions, 1935–1950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016).

11. Leon Fink, “Labor, Liberty, and the Law: Trade Unionism and the Problem of the American Constitutional Order,” Journal of American History 74 (1987): 904–25.

12. Hendrik Hartog, “The Constitution of Aspiration and ‘The Rights That Belong to Us All,’” Journal of American History 74 (1987): 1013–34; and John Phillip Reid, “In a Defensive Rage: The Uses of the Mob, the Justification in Law, and the Coming of the American Revolution,” New York University Law Review 49 (1974): 1043–91.

13. Robert O. Self, American Babylon: Race and the Struggle for Postwar Oakland (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003), 54–82; Brilliant, The Color of America Has Changed, 15–27; and Reuel Schiller, Forging Rivals: Race, Class, Law, and the Collapse of Postwar Liberalism (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015).

14. Williams v. International Brotherhood of Boilermakers, 27 Cal. 2d 586 (1946); James v. Marinship Corp., 25 Cal.2d 721, 745 (1944); and Schiller, Forging Rivals, 48–80.

15. Brilliant, The Color of America Has Changed, 119.

16. Thomas J. Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty: The Forgotten Struggle for Civil Rights in the North (New York: Random House, 2008), 36.

17. See John Valery White, “The Turner Thesis, Black Migration, and the (Misapplied) Immigrant Explanation of Black Inequality,” Nevada Law Journal 5 (2004): 42; and Richmond Record Herald, June 24, 1947.

18. Shirley Ann Wilson Moore, To Place Our Deeds: The African American Community in Richmond, California 1910–1963 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000), 90.

19. “Court Picket Ruling Held 2-edged Sword,” People's Daily World, May 14, 1950.

20. Herbert Hill, Black Labor and the American Legal System: Race, Work, and the Law (1977; repr., Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985); Robert Rodgers Korstad, Civil Rights Unionism: Tobacco Workers and the Struggle for Democracy in the Mid-Twentieth-Century South (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2003); Bruce Nelson, Divided We Stand: American Workers and the Struggle for Black Equality (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001); and Roger Horowitz, Negro and White, Unite and Fight! A Social History of Industrial Unionism in Meatpacking, 1930–1990 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997).

21. Brilliant, The Color of America Has Changed, 120.

22. Affidavits of Hughes and Richardson.

23. Lizabeth Cohen, A Consumers’ Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America (New York: Vintage, 2003), 45–47; Edward Peeks, The Long Struggle for Black Power (New York: Scribner, 1971), 268; August Meier and Elliot Rudwick, Along the Color Line: Explorations in the Black Experience (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1976), 269; Gilbert Ware, “The New Negro Alliance: ‘Don't Buy Where You Can't Work,’” Negro History Bulletin 49 (1986): 3–8; Michele F. Pacifico, “‘Don't Buy Where You Can't Work’: The New Negro Alliance of Washington,” Washington History 6 (1994): 66–88; and August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, “The Origins of Nonviolent Direct Action in Afro-American Protest: A Note on Historical Discontinuities,” in Along the Color Line, 307–404.

24. Norris-LaGuardia Act of 1932, 29 U.S.C. §§ 101-115 (2018).

25. New Negro Alliance v. Sanitary Grocery Co., 303 U.S. 552 (1938).

26. Hague v. Committee for Industrial Organization, 307 U.S. 496 (1939); Schneider v. State of New Jersey, 308 U.S. 147 (1939); Thornhill v. Alabama, 310 U.S. 88 (1940); Carlson v. State of California, 310 U.S. 106 (1940); A merican Federation of Labor v. Swing, 312 U.S. 321 (1941); and Bakery & Pastry Drivers Local 802 v. Wohl, 315 U.S. 769 (1942).

27. Allan Brotsky, interview by Harvey Schwartz, November 2005, transcript, Oral History, Labor Archives and Research Center, San Francisco State University, 32.

28. Robert Treuhaft, interview by Robert G. Larsen, January 1989, Bancroft Library Oral History Project, University of California, Berkeley, 108–112.

29. Lee, The Workplace Constitution.

30. Michael Harrington, The Retail Clerks (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1962), 73–77.

31. Hughes v. Superior Court, 186 P.2d 756, 758–61 (Cal. App. 1947).

32. Contra Costa County Labor Journal, June 13, 1947.

33. Hughes, 186 P.2d at 758; and “Pickets Are Enjoined from Market Line,” Richmond Record Herald, May 27, 1947.

34. Order granting Preliminary Injunction, No. 39861 (June 5, 1947).

35. Felix Frankfurter Papers, Hughes v. Superior Court file, University Microfilms. The draft said: “The injunction here was narrowly drawn to prohibit precisely the evil of picketing to bring about proportionate hiring. No issue was raised of picketing merely to protest discrimination against Negroes and the injunction does not forbid it.” This was a misstatement of the record.

36. Griffin to Marshall, June 3, 1947, NAACP Correspondence File, Hughes v. Superior Court, 1947–50, 2.

37. Marshall to Griffin, June 13, 1947, NAACP Correspondence File, 4–5.

38. Treuhaft, Oral History, 94, 108–12.

39. Brotsky, Oral History, 34, 67

40. Ludwig Teller, “Picketing and Free Speech,” Harvard Law Review 56 (1942): 180–82.

41. Bakery Drivers v. Wohl, 315 U.S. 769, 775 (1942); and Cafeteria Employees. Union Local 302 v. Angelos, 320 U.S. 293 (1943).

42. Thornhill, 310 U.S. at 103.

43. United States v. United Mine Workers, 330 U.S. 258 (1947).

44. 274 N.Y.S. 946 (1934).

45. Decision by the Court, filed April 30, 1948, nunc pro tunc as of November 20, 1947, Record of Hughes v. Superior Court, California Historical Society.

46. NAACP Correspondence File, 7; and Brotsky, Oral History.

47. Marian Wynn Perry to Mitchell, NAACP Correspondence File, February 18, 1948, 6.

48. Hughes, 186 P.2d at 763, 765.

49. Ibid. at 768 (quoting Ludwig Teller, The Law Governing Labor Disputes and Collective Bargaining [New York: Baker, Voorhis & Co., 1940], 427).

50. Hughes, 32 Cal. 2d 850, 851, 854 & n.1 (1948); Affidavits of Otto Meyer, Albert West, and Benjamin Linsner, Transcript of Record, 45–50.

51. 32 Cal. 2d at 856.

52. 32 Cal. 2d at 869.

53. 32 Cal. 2d at 897.

54. Miller to Marshall, November 1948, NAACP Correspondence File.

55. Edises to Marshall, Jan. 22, 1949, NAACP Correspondence File

56. Poole to Marshall, January 10, 1949, NAACP Correspondence File

57. Dennis Deslippe, Protesting Affirmative Action: The Struggle Over Equality After the Civil Rights Revolution (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2012), 10.

58. Levy to Fraenkel, March 8, 1949, NAACP Cases: Hughes v. Superior Court: Racial Quota Pickets, Box 845, Folder 9, item 88. The ACLU of Northern California was involved from early on in the appeals process in support of Hughes and Richardson. ACLU Files, 1940–1949, MS 3580 (Series 11, Box 27, Folder 561), California Historical Society.

59. Besig to Levy, May 27, 1949. NAACP Cases: Hughes v. Superior Court, Box 845, Folder 9; ACLU Files, 1940–1949, MS 3580 (Series 11, Box 27, Folder 561), California Historical Society.

60. Dellums to McLaurin, April 5, 1949, Cases: Hughes v. Superior Court, Box 845, Folder 9.

61. Carter to Brotsky, August 29, 1949.

62. Marshall to Brown, October 25, 1949.

63. Ming to Marshall, October 28, 1949.

64. Wheeler to Marshall, November 8, 1949.

65. Frank Richards to Miller, October 27, 1949; Richards to Marshall, October 18, 1949.

66. Decision by the Court, filed April 30, 1948, nunc pro tunc as of November 20, 1947, Record of Hughes v. Superior Court, California Historical Society.

67. Christopher W. Schmidt, “Divided by Law: The Sit Ins and the Role of Courts in the Civil Rights Movement,” Law and History Review 33 (2015): 113.

68. Reid, “In a Defensive Rage,” 1043. Christopher L. Tomlins, In the Matter of Nat Turner: A Speculative History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2020).

69. Christopher H. Johnson, Maurice Sugar: Law, Labor, and the Left in Detroit, 1912–1950 (Detroit: Wayne State Press, 1988), 212–13.

70. Maurice Sugar, “Is the Sit-Down Legal?” The New Masses, May 4, 1937, 19; and Johnson, Maurice Sugar, 216–17, 296.

71. Sugar, “Is the Sit-Down Legal?” 20–21; and Frederick Rudolph, “The American Liberty League, 1934–1950,” American Historical Review 56 (1950): 19–33.

72. Sugar, “Is the Sit-Down Legal?” 20–21, quoting Edmund Burke, Letter to Charles James Fox, October 8, 1777. https://www.gutenberg.org/files/15702/15702-h/15702-h.htm#CHARLES_JAMES_FOX (accessed January 21, 2021).

73. NLRB v. Fansteel Metallurgical Corp., 306 U.S. 240 (1939); Int'l Union, United Auto Workers v. Wisconsin Emp. Rels. Bd., 336 U.S. 245 (1949); Elk Lumber Co., 91 N.L.R.B. 333 (1950); James Gray Pope, “Worker Lawmaking, Sit-Down Strikes, and the Shaping of American Industrial Relations, 1935–1958,” Law and History Review 24 (2006): 45–113; Karl E. Klare, “The Judicial Deradicalization of the Wagner Act and the Origins of Modern Legal Consciousness, 1937–1941,” Minnesota Law Review 62 (1978): 265–340.

74. Carpenters Union v. Ritter's Café, 315 U.S. 722 (1942).

75. Milk Wagon Drivers Union Loc. 753 v. Meadowmoor Dairies, Inc., 312 U.S. 287 (1941).

76. Laura Weinrib, “The Right to Work and the Right to Strike,” University of Chicago Legal Forum 2017 (2018): 531; and Kessler, “The Early Years of First Amendment Lochnerism.”

77. Donna T. Haverty-Stacke, Trotskyists on Trial: Free Speech and Political Persecution Since the Age of FDR (New York: New York University Press, 2015); Stanley I. Kutler, The American Inquisition: Justice and Injustice in the Cold War (New York: Hill & Wang, 1982); Michael R. Belknap, Cold War Political Justice: The Smith Act, the Communist Party, and American Civil Liberties (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1977); and Catherine L. Fisk, “A Progressive Labor Vision of the First Amendment: Past as Prologue,” Columbia Law Review 118 (2018): 2057–94.

78. Meadowmoor Dairies, 312 U.S. 287. H. N. Hirsch, The Enigma of Felix Frankfurter (New York: Basic Books, 1981), identifies Meadowmoor as the case that began the split between Frankfurter and Black.

79. Meadowmoor Dairies, 312 U.S. at 299.

80. F[elix] F[rankfurter] to H[ugo] L[.] B[lack], February 6, 1941, Hughes v. Superior Court file, Black Papers, Library of Congress.

81. Hughes v. Superior Court file, Black Papers.

82. Murphy to Black, n.d., Black Papers; Henry Ellenbogen of Pittsburgh Court of Common Pleas to H[ugo] L[.] B[lack], August 1, 1941, Black Papers.

83. Thornhill, 310 U.S. 88; Carlson, 310 U.S. 106.

84. Bridges v. California, 314 U.S. 252 (1941).

85. James F. Simon, The Antagonists (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1989), 121–28.

86. Ritter's Café, 315 U.S. 722.

87. Ibid. at 729.

88. Ibid. at 730.

89. Ibid. at 731.

90. Bruce Allen Murphy, Wild Bill: The Life and Legend of William O. Douglas (New York: Random House, 2003), 271.

91. Thornhill, 310 U.S. 88.

92. Sidney Fine, Frank Murphy: The Detroit Years (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1975); and J. Woodford Howard, Mr. Justice Murphy: A Political Biography (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1968).

93. Giboney v. Empire Storage & Ice Co., 336 U.S. 490 (1949).

94. Lawson v. United States, 339 U.S. 934 (1950); and Trumbo v. United States, 339 U.S. 934 (1950).

95. American Communications Ass'n v. Douds, 339 U.S. 382 (1950).

96. Ibid.

97. Clyde E. Jacobs, Justice Frankfurter and Civil Liberties (New York: Da Capo Press, 1974); Hirsch, The Enigma of Felix Frankfurter; Noah Feldman, Scorpions the Battles and Triumphs of FDR's Great Supreme Court Justices (New York: Twelve, 2010); Melvin Urofsky, Felix Frankfurter: Judicial Restraint and Civil Liberties (Boston: Twayne, 1991); Philip B. Kurland, Mr. Justice Frankfurter and the Constitution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971); and Jeffrey Hockett, New Deal Justice: The Constitutional Jurisprudence of Hugo L. Black, Felix Frankfurter, and Robert H. Jackson (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1996).

98. Hughes, 339 U.S. 460.

99. Feldman, Scorpions, 348.

100. Hughes, 339 U.S. at 463.

101. James v. Marinship Corp., 25 Cal. 2d 721 (1944); and Williams v. International Brotherhood of Boilermakers, 27 Cal. 2d 586 (1946).

102. Brilliant, The Color of America, 119.

103. Hughes, 339 U.S. at 466.

104. Memorandum of Justice Clark, dissenting, dated January 1950, Clark Papers, Box A3, Folder 1, Tarlton Library, University of Texas, Austin.

105. Hughes, 339 U.S. at 465.

106. Felix Frankfurter Papers, Hughes v. Superior Court file.

107. “Lucky Stores Win Ruling on Negro Clerks,” San Francisco Chronicle, May 9, 1950, 2; and “Picket Bans Win in Supreme Court,” New York Times, May 9, 1950, 19.

108. “Court Picket Ruling Held 2-Edged Sword,” People's Daily World, May 14, 1950.

109. Brennan Papers, Box I: 118, Folder 5, Draft opinion from Black circulated to Court on December 3, 1964, Library of Congress.

110. Hughes, 379 U.S. at 578.

111. Memorandum on Mississippi Selective Buying Campaign, 4–5, Mississippi Pressures Boycott ‘Made in Mississippi’ 1964–65, NAACP General Office File.

112. Memorandum on Mississippi Selective Buying Campaign, 10. NAACP General Office File.

113. NAACP v. Claiborne Hardware, 458 U.S. 886 (1982).

114. San Diego Gas & Elec. Co. v. San Diego Congress of Racial Equality, 241 Cal. App. 2d 405 (1966) (Coughlin, J., concurring); 43 Op. Cal. Atty's Gen. 200, 203–04 (1964); David Benjamin Oppenheimer and Margaret M. Baumgartner, “Employment Discrimination and Wrongful Discharge: Does the California Fair Employment and Housing Act Displace Common Law Remedies?” University of San Francisco Law Review 23 (1989): 191.

115. “Labor Lawyer Fears Injunction Rule,” Contra Costa Labor Journal, September 22, 1950.

116. Int'l Longshoremen's Ass'n v. Allied Int'l, Inc., 456 U.S. 212 (1982); and James Gray Pope, “The First Amendment, the Thirteenth Amendment, and the Right to Organize in the Twenty-First Century,” Rutgers Law Review 51 (1999): 941, 950.

117. Risa Goluboff, “Lawyers, Law, and the New Civil Rights History,” Harvard Law Review 126 (2013): 2312, 2319; and Christopher W. Schmidt, “Divided by Law: The Sit-Ins and the Role of the Courts in the Civil Rights Movement,” Law and History Review 33(2015): 93–150.

118. Eric Arnesen, Brotherhoods of Color: Black Railroad Workers and the Struggle for Equality (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001); Nelson, Divided We Stand; Thomas J. Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty: The Forgotten Struggle for Civil Rights in the North (New York: Random House, 2008); and Robert Korstad and Nelson Lichtenstein, “Opportunities Found and Lost: Labor, Radicals, and the Early Civil Rights Movement,” Journal of American History 75 (1988): 786–811.

119. Exceptions include Michael W. McCann, Rights at Work: Pay Equity Reform and the Politics of Legal Mobilization (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994); Kim Voss, “The Collapse of a Social Movement: The Interplay of Mobilizing Structures, Framing, and Political Opportunities in the Knights of Labor,” in Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements, ed. Doug McAdam, John D. McCarthy, and Mayer Zald (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 227–60. On labor lawyers: William E. Forbath, “Class Struggle, Group Rights, and Socialist Pluralism on the Lower East Side—Radical Lawyering and Constitutional Imagination in the Early Twentieth Century,” University of Texas Law Public Research Paper No. 712, http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3485241 (accessed January 21, 2021); Robert W. Gordon, “The American Legal Profession, 1870–2000,” in Cambridge History of Law in America, vol. 3, ed. Michael Grossberg and Christopher Tomlins (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 107; and Jerold Auerbach, Unequal Justice (London: Oxford University Press, 1976).

120. Risa Goluboff, The Lost Promise of Civil Rights (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010).

121. Catherine L. Fisk and Diana S. Reddy, “Protection by Law, Repression by Law: Bringing Labor Back Into Law and Social Movement Studies,” Emory Law Journal 70 (2020): 63–152; and Richard A. Brisbin, Jr., A Strike Like No Other: Law and Resistance during the Pittston Coal Strike of 1989–1990 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002).

122. William Forbath, Law and the Shaping of the American Labor Movement (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991); and Victoria Hattam, Labor Visions and State Power (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993).

123. Christopher L. Tomlins, The State and the Unions: Labor Relations, Law, and the Organized Labor Movement in America, 1880–1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Daniel R. Ernst, “Common Laborers? Industrial Pluralists, Legal Realists, and the Law of Industrial Disputes, 1915–1943,” Law and History Review 11 (1993): 59–100; and Dianne Avery, “Images of Violence in Labor Jurisprudence: The Regulation of Picketing and Boycotts, 1894–1921,” Buffalo Law Review 37 (1989): 1–118.

124. James Gray Pope, “How American Workers Lost the Right to Strike, and Other Tales,” Michigan Law Review 103 (2004): 518; Nelson Lichtenstein, Labor's War at Home: The CIO in World War II (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2010); Karl Klare, “Judicial Deradicalization of the Wagner Act and the Origins of Modern Legal Consciousness, 1937-1941,” Minnesota Law Review 62 (1978): 265-339; David Rabban, “Has the NLRA Hurt Labor?” University of Chicago Law Review 54 (1987): 407–31; and James B. Atleson, “The Legal Community and the Transformation of Disputes: The Settlement of Injunction Actions,” Law and Society Review 23 (1989): 41–74.

125. Van Wezel Stone, Katherine, “The Post-war Paradigm in American Labor Law,” Yale Law Journal 90 (1981): 1513CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Schiller, Forging Rivals.

126. Barenberg, Mark, “Political Economy of the Wagner Act: Power, Symbol, and Workplace Cooperation,” Harvard Law Review 106 (1993): 1379–496CrossRefGoogle Scholar.