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Legal Reasoning in a Slave Society (Brazil, 1860–88)
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 08 August 2018
Abstract
This article analyses arguments used in an 1866 Brazilian freedom suit to highlight a substantive legal perspective. Historians of Brazilian slavery law have given attention to the politics of freedom suits, largely disregarding the role of law in their origins, developments, and outcomes. By looking at legal arguments, we show how law and political views mutually framed each other. We focus on the impact of 19th century legal modernizations in the distinction and contradictions between the law of status and property law, the legal translations of freedom, and the uses of arguments based on codes, natural law, and pragmatic considerations about the judiciary's role in a slave society. This is a micro-history of a suit that, with the help of other 19th-century freedom suits and legal doctrine, allows us to move up and down different historical scales to understand law's centrality in the political perpetuation and demise of slavery in Brazil.
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- Copyright © the American Society for Legal History, Inc. 2018
Footnotes
Her research interests are the legal history of slavery and property law. Her recent book “Sujeitos da história, sujeitos de direitos” (Alameda, 2018) focuses on the regulation of slaves' legal statuses in Brazil, from 1860 to 1888. She is currently working on a project about property law and regimes of dependence in the Lusophone South Atlantic territories (nowadays Brazil and Angola), from circa 1780 to circa 1880.
References
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24. The “deposit” was a common procedure to keep movable property safe. Despite treating the putative slave as a “thing,” jurists argued that the deposit was a protective measure that enabled slaves and freedmen to exercise their right of action outside the reach of their putative master. Freitas, Consolidação das Leis Civis, 315; Malheiro, A Escravidão no Brasil, 1:127–28. In the case of Marianna and Antonia, against the Monsignor Pedro Celestino de Alcântara Pacheco, for example, the judge asserted: “for the plaintiffs to defend their rights it is essential that they be outside the dominium of the persons interested in the case against them” (Apelação cível sobre liberdade de escravos, 1863, fundo Relação do Rio de Janeiro, série Apelação Cível, processo n. 103, microfilme RRJ mr 034, 8L, Arquivo Edgard Leuenroth, Campinas, Brazil).
25. Keila Grinberg, Liberata.
26. Sidney Chalhoub, Visões da Liberdade. According to Grinberg, almost half of the decisions in freedom suits before the court of appeals of Rio de Janeiro in the nineteenth century were in favor of liberty. Grinberg, Liberata, 27.
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35. Pinheiro, “Transformações de uma prática contenciosa.”
36. Apelação Cível 84.ACI.0133, 7/R.
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48. As examples of rationalistic conceptions of law in Brazilian legal doctrine, see Freitas, Consolidação das Leis Civis (1876), I-CCXXI; Ribas, Curso de Direito Civil Drasileiro, 1:1–36.
49. Revista do Instituto da Ordem dos Advogados Brasileiros, Anno II, Tomo II, n. 3, 1863, 138. This version of legal thought was not restricted to nations of the civil law tradition, where codes were the main source of law. According to Morton Horwitz, since 1826, American legal treatises promoted a conception of law as science, autonomous from politics (Horwitz., Morton J. The Transformation of American Law, 1870–1960 (Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, 1992Google Scholar), 10.
50. In the original, “um todo harmônico” (Revista do Instituto da Ordem dos Advogados Brasileiros, Anno IV, Tomo III, Janeiro a Outubro, 1865, 66).
51. Apelação Cível 84.ACI.0133, 64/L.
52. Gilberto Freyre indicates that these attempts at final redemption were common in Brazil. Freyre, Gilberto, Casa-grande & Senzala: Formação da família brasileira sob o regime da economia patriarcal (São Paulo: Global, 2006), 525Google Scholar.
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55. Between 1580 and 1640, the crowns of Spain and Portugal were united under three Spanish kings. Soon after Brazilian independence, the monarchical government enacted a law that established that the 1603 Ordinances would remain enforceable in Brazil (Lei de 20 de Outubro de 1823).
56. de Almeida, Cândido Mendes, Código Filipino: Ou Ordenações e Leis do Reino de Portugal Recopiladas por Mandado Del-Rei D. Philippe I (Rio de Janeiro: Tipografia do Instituto Filomático, 1870), 4:957–58Google Scholar.
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58. Malheiro, A Escravidão no Brasil, 1:102.
59. Ibid., 1:77–78, 102–4, 123.
60. Freitas, Consolidação das Leis Civis, 654–56.
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65. This argument differentiating the right to become free from the right to be free was not commonly used in status determination lawsuits. We did not find anything similar to this in other court records.
66. Robert Slenes, “The Demography and Economics of Brazilian Slavery: 1850–1888” (PhD diss., Stanford University, 1975), 506–30.
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75. The 1871 “Free Womb Law,” discussed in the conclusion, freed all children henceforth born to slave mothers. The 1885 “Sexagenarians Law,” freed all slaves who were 60 years of age or older. However, they were bound to work for their former master for 3 years, in order to pay for the manumission.
76. See, for example Império do Brasil, Coleção das Decisões do Governo do Império do Brasil (Rio de Janeiro: Tipografia Nacional, 1857), 20:276; Brasil, Coleção das Decisões do Governo do Império do Brasil (Rio de Janeiro: Tipografia Nacional, 1863), 26:192, 370; Tribunal de Justiça do Rio de Janeiro, Legislação, Escravidão, Século XIX, 76, 152; O Direito: Revista Mensal de Legislação, Doutrina e Jurisprudência 8 (1875): 186. See also the judge's decision concerning the earnings of Caetana—a conditionally manumitted woman—in the lawsuit filed by Bento, in 1867. Apelação cível sobre liberdade de escravos, 1867, fundo Relação do Rio de Janeiro, série Apelação Cível, processo n. 137, microfilme RRJ mr 042, Arquivo Edgard Leuenroth, Campinas, Brazil.
77. Loureiro, , Instituições de Direito Civil Brasileiro (Recife: Tipografia Universal, 1862)Google Scholar, 1:34.
78. Malheiro, A Escravidão no Brasil, 1:41, 72–73, 91, 106, 109–14, 118–21. On coercive labor other than slave labor in nineteenth-century Brazil, see Mendonça, Joseli, “Sobre cadeias e coerção: experiências de trabalho no centro-sul do Brasil no século XIX,” Revista brasileira de história, 32 (2012): 45CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
79. Freitas, Consolidação das Leis Civis, 36, 653.
80. See also the 1830 Brazilian Criminal Code, article 179 (Codigo Criminal do Imperio do Brazil, 1830); and Grinberg, Keila and Mamigonian, Beatriz, “Le crime de réduction à l'esclavage d'une personne libre (Brésil, XXIe siècle),” Brésil(s) 11 (2017): 11Google Scholar.
81. Mariana Armond Dias Paes, “Sujeitos da história, sujeitos de direitos: personalidade jurídica no Brasil escravista (1860–1888)” (MA thesis, University of São Paulo, 2014),” 140–69; and Fernanda Pinheiro, “Em defesa da liberdade: libertos e livres de cor nos tribunais do Antigo Regime Português” (PhD diss., State University of Campinas, 2013)” 21–88. On the argument of possession of freedom in Louisiana, see Scott, Rebecca, “Paper Thin: Freedom and Re-enslavement in the Diaspora of the Haitian Revolution,” Law and History Review 29 (2011): 1061CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Scott, Rebecca, “Social Facts, Legal Fictions, and the Attribution of Slave Status: The Puzzle of Prescription,” Law and History Review 35 (2017): 9–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Historians have not analyzed the acquisition of slaves through the exercise of possession in Brazil. Nonetheless, general possession theory was compatible with this situation. A quick review of the lawsuits available at the National Archives in Rio de Janeiro shows that there were some lawsuits filed by one alleged master against another discussing the ownership of a slave on the grounds of possession.
82. Apelação Cível 84.ACI.0133, 6/L.
83. Manutenção e libelo de liberdade, 1836, Série: Apelação Cível, Fundo/Coleção: Relação do Rio de Janeiro, Microfilme: AN 037-2006, Arquivo Nacional, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Reference code 84.0.ACI.14.
84. Apelação Cível 84.ACI.0133, 6/R. The practice of baptizing children as slaves—despite their controversial legal status—was common in Brazil. In the lawsuit filed by Angelica and her children against João Antonio de Mello in 1865, the plaintiffs claimed that they were baptized as slaves by the defendant, despite being descendants of Escolastica, a freedwoman. However, the plaintiffs were not able to prove that the baptism certificates were false and were therefore declared slaves by the courts. Apelação cível sobre liberdade de escravos, 1865, fundo Relação do Rio de Janeiro, série Apelação Cível, processo n. 123, microfilme RRJ mr 039, Arquivo Edgard Leuenroth, Campinas, Brazil.
85. De la Fuente, “Slaves and the creation of legal rights in Cuba,” 679.
86. Phillips, Freedom's Port, 45.
87. Pena, Eduardo Spiller, Pajens da Casa Imperial: Jurisconsultos, Escravidão e a Lei de 1871 (Campinas: Unicamp, 2001), 85–88Google Scholar.
88. Ibid., 92–93.
89. Malheiro, A Escravidão no Brasil, §125.
90. Pena, Pajens da Casa Imperial, 95.
91. Ibid., 92.
92. Revista do Instituto da Ordem dos Advogados Brasileiros, Anno I, Tomo I, n. 1, 1862, 31.
93. Grinberg, O Fiador dos Brasileiros, 215.
94. Freitas, Consolidação das leis civis (1876), 36, 653; and Morgan, Thomas Gibbes, Civil Code of the State of Louisiana (New Orleans: Bloomfield & Steel, 1859), 33Google Scholar.
95. Apelação cível sobre liberdade de escravos, 1861, fundo Relação do Rio de Janeiro, série Apelação Cível, processo n. 165, microfilme RRJ mr 051, Arquivo Edgard Leuenroth, Campinas, Brazil.
96. “De ventre livre não pode nascer escravo” (Apelação Cível 84.ACI.0133, 20/R).
97. The original text said “É garantido o Direito de Propriedade em toda sua plenitude.”
98. This frequency was not much different in previous and subsequent years. See Grinberg, O Fiador dos Brasileiros, 205.
99. Revista do Instituto da Ordem dos Advogados Brasileiros, Anno I, Tomo I, n. 4, 1862, 211.
100. Article 179, XXII established that if public good (“bem publico”) required a citizen's property, he should be previously compensated for its value. However, the law had to mark the cases (“A Lei marcará os casos”) in which an exception was possible; Chalhoub, Visões da Liberdade, 106–7.
101. Legal doctrine considered married women “incapable,” because they were subject to the “marital power.” However, the “marital power” was not the sole restriction on women's legal status. Before getting married, they were subjected to the “patria potestas” (father's power). After their husbands died, they were in a “state of widowhood.” On women's legal status during the nineteenth century, see Isabela Guimarães Rabelo do Amaral, “Resistência feminina no Brasil oitocentista: as ações de divórcio e nulidade de matrimônio no Bispado de Mariana” (MA diss., Federal University of Minas Gerais, 2012), 93–117. Married women's civil capacity was discussed in status determination lawsuits when they freed household slaves. See, for example, Apelação cível sobre liberdade de escravos, 1863, fundo Relação do Rio de Janeiro, série Apelação Cível, processo n. 105, microfilme RRJ mr 034, Arquivo Edgard Leuenroth, Campinas, Brazil and Apelação cível sobre liberdade de escravos, 1867, fundo Relação do Rio de Janeiro, série Apelação Cível, processo n. 135, microfilme RRJ mr 042, Arquivo Edgard Leuenroth, Campinas, Brazil.
102. Apelação Cível 84.ACI.0133, 19/L.
103. “a favor da liberdade muitas coisas são outhorgadas contra as regras geraes de Direito” (Apelação Cível 84.ACI.0133, 18); See Almeida, Código filipino, 4:790–91.
104. This passage was extensively used in status determination lawsuits. Grinberg found 22 explicit references to this passage in a sample of 110 re-enslavement lawsuits filed before the Court of Appeals of Rio de Janeiro, between 1808 and 1888 (Grinberg, Keila, “Re-enslavenment, Rights and Justice in Nineteenth Century Brazil,” Translating the Americas 1 [2013]: 148CrossRefGoogle Scholar). Nonetheless, the passage did not originally refer to African slavery. It addressed Arabian slavery (mouros) in the Iberian peninsula, especially during the fifteenth century.
105. Malheiro, A Escravidão no Brasil, 1:63–65. This principle was also mentioned in Carneiro, Direito Civil de Portugal, 1:96; Freitas, Consolidação das Leis Civis, 70; and Ribas, Direito Administrativo Brasileiro, 374–75.
106. “Um átomo qualquer de liberdade adquirido pelo escravo irradia-se por ele todo com a mesma força vivificante do espirito de que é ela faculdade componente, por tal modo que desaparece o torpor, a inércia anterior da condição material destruída pelo aparecimento daquele átomo” (Apelação Cível 84.ACI.0133, 19/L).
107. Somerset v. Stewart, Lofft 1, 98 ER 499 (1772); and Commonwealth v. Aves, 35 Mass. 193 (1836).
108. Revista do Instituto dos Advogados Brasileiros, Anno II, Tomo II, n. 3, 1863, 145; and Malheiro, A Escravidão no Brasil, 1:432, fn. 558.
109. “Considerable evidence suggests that local, popular traditions, dating back at least as far as the sixteenth century, freedpeople in bondage when they crossed particular state borders. We call this custom, sometimes articulated in court decisions or positive legislation by various legislative bodies, the ‘free soil principle’” (Peabody, Sue and Grinberg, Keila, “Free Soil: The Generation and Circulation of an Atlantic Legal Principle,” Slavery & Abolition 32 (2011): 331–39CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 331).
110. “propriedade compensada é sempre propriedade” (Apelação Cível 84.ACI.0133, 19/R).
111. Articles 10, 15, VIII, 102, XXI, and 152 of the 1824 Constitution.
112. Article 101 of the 1824 Constitution.
113. “faça-se rigorosa aplicação da lei” (Apelação Cível 84.ACI.0133, 48/R). The constitutional principle of separation of powers also grounded other arguments made by lawyers in status determination lawsuits. It was present, for example, in the enslavement suit filed by Mariano José Pires against Januária, Francisca, Thereza, Lucia Maria do Patrocinio, Maria d'Assumpção, and Anna, in 1867, before the municipal judge of Patrocínio, in the province of Minas Gerais. At the appeals level, their lawyer argued that the executive and the legislative powers were the ones in charge of solving the problem of emancipation. The judiciary power should not interfere in this issue and should simply apply the law, even if it was too harsh. To conclude, he added the Latin aphorism: “dura lex, sed lex.” Apelação cível sobre liberdade de escravos, 1867, fundo Relação do Rio de Janeiro, série Apelação Cível, processo n. 135, microfilme RRJ mr 042, Arquivo Edgard Leuenroth. On the use of the argument of the separation of powers to defend the slave trade to Brazil, see Parron, A Política da Ecravidão no Império do Brasil.
114. Ajello, Raffaele, Arcana Juris—Diritto e Politica nel Settecento Italiano (Napoli: Jovene, 1976)Google Scholar; Halperin, Jean-Louis, L'Impossible Code Civil (Paris: PUF, 1992)Google Scholar; and Birocchi, Italo, Alla Ricerca Dell'Ordine (Torino: Giappichelli, 2002)Google Scholar.
115. Grinberg, O Fiador dos Brasileiros, 237–39.
116. Ibid., 249.
117. The first Brazilian Civil Code was approved in 1916, after the fall of the monarchy in 1889.
118. Grinberg, O Fiador dos Brasileiros, 251.
119. Bueno, José Antonio Pimenta, Direito Público Brasileiro e Análise da Constituição do Império (Rio de Janeiro: Tipografia Imp. e Const. de J. Villeneuve e C., 1857), 329Google Scholar. Later, in 1877, Lobão Cedro would argue that legislators should try to reduce the interference of legal hermeneutics as much as possible (O Direito: Revista Mensal de Legislação, Doutrina e Jurisprudência 14 (1877), 250, Anno V, vol. 14, 1877, 250).
120. “grito imprudente de emancipação” (Apelação Cível 84.ACI.0133, 27/L). A similar rhetorical argument was made in the freedom suit filled by the alleged slave Manuel against Manuel Paulo de Oliveira (Apelação cível sobre liberdade de escravos, 1861, fundo Relação do Rio de Janeiro, série Apelação Cível, processo n. 165, microfilme RRJ mr 051, p. 47, Arquivo Edgard Leuenroth, Campinas, Brazil).
121. Chalhoub, Sidney, Machado de Assis, Historiador (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2003)Google Scholar.
122. Apelação Cível 84.ACI.0133, 48/R-49/L.
123. Horwitz, Morton, “The Rise of Legal Formalism,” in The Transformation of American Law, 1780–1860, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1979), 253–268Google Scholar.
124. Historians have argued that slaves—especially those who, like Benta, went to court—played an active role in this process of delegitimation (Mattos, Das cores do silêncio; Azevedo, O Direito dos Escravos; and Chalhoub, Visões da Liberdade).
125. Grinberg, O Fiador dos Brasileiros, 250–51.
126. Ghachem, Malick W., “Prosecuting Torture: The Strategic Ethics of Slavery in Pre-Revolutionary Saint-Domingue (Haiti),” Law and History Review 29 (2011): 1006CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
127. On the Haitian Revolution see Dubois, Laurent, Avengers of the New World: The Story of the Haitian Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2004)Google Scholar.
128. Malheiro, A Escravidão no Brasil, 36.
129. “rigor e reflexão de suas sentenças” (Apelação Cível 84.ACI.0133, 27/R).
130. For an analysis of the slaves’ characterization as domestic and public enemies in Brazil, see de Azevedo, Celia Maria Marinho, Onda negra, medo branco: o negro no imaginário das elites – século XIX (São Paulo: Annablume, 2004)Google Scholar.
131. Costa, Da Senzala à Colônia, 357; Article 113 of the 1830 Criminal Code prescribed penalties between 15 years in the galleys and death to insurrection leaders, and corporal punishment to other insurgents.
132. On this revolt, see Reis, João José, Rebelião Escrava no Brasil: A História do Levante dos Malês em 1835 (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2003)Google Scholar
133. “Haitianism” referred to the widespread fear that slaves would revolt as the Saint-Domingue slaves had done in the late eighteenth century. On “Haitianism” in Brazil, see Rodrigues, Jaime, O infame comércio: propostas e experiências no final do tráfico de africanos para o Brasil, 1800–1850, (Campinas: Editora da Unicamp, 2000)Google Scholar.
134. Apelação Cível 84.ACI.0133, 27/R; For a similar argument about the correlation between the number of slaves in the province and the risk of rebellion, see the Campinas police deputy's report cited in Costa, Da Senzala à Colônia, 360.
135. “mais santo e natural direito” (Apelação Cível 84.ACI.0133, 32/R).
136. José Bonifácio de Andrade e Silva, Representação à Assembléia Constituinte e Legislativa do Império do Brasil sobre a Escravatura (Rio de Janeiro: Tipographia de J.E.S. Cabral, 1840), 11. Natural law, however, was also used to defend the illegal slave trade in Brazil, see Parron, A Política da Escravidão no Império do Brasil, 144.
137. Apelação Cível 84.ACI.0133, 33/R.
138. These conjectures are based on Grinberg, O Fiador dos Brasileiros, 255–60.
139. “de inteira harmonia com os princípios da ciência” (Apelação Cível 84.ACI.0133, 59/L).
140. TJRJ, Legislação, escravidão, século XIX, 152.
141. Laidler, Christiane, “A Lei do Ventre Livre: interesses e disputas em torno do projeto de “abolição gradual,” Escritos 5 (2011): 169–205Google Scholar.
142. Historians have argued that slavery prevented Brazil from adopting a civil code during the nineteenth century. Grinberg, Keila, Código Civil e Cidadania (Rio de Janeiro: Zahar, 2002)Google Scholar. Nonetheless, Brazilian jurists, such as Freitas, discussed slavery within the limits of general civil law, applied to all kinds of property, which suggests that those in charge of codification did not believe that slavery was an obstacle to the creation of a civil code.
143. “filho agradecido” (Malheiro, A Escravidão no Brasil, §148). On September 28, 1871, the Free Womb Law extinguished the possibility of revoking manumissions for reasons of ingratitude.
144. Costa, Da Monarquia à Republica, 515. On the precariousness of freedom in nineteenth century Brazil, see Chalhoub, “The Precariousness of Freedom in a Slave Society.”
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