1. L. Edwin Dudley to David J. Hill, Dec. 7, 1899, RG 59, Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Vancouver, T114, Volume 2, Reel 2, National Archive and Record Administration (hereafter NARA), College Park (hereafter Despatches Vancouver vol. 2).

2. L. Edwin Dudley to David J. Hill, “Kidnapping from the State of Washington And Bringing Prisoners to B.C.,” May 29, 1900, RG 59, Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Vancouver, T114, Volume 3, Reel 3, NARA College Park (hereafter Despatches Vancouver vol. 3).

3. Although scholars of irregular justice have written extensively on the seizures that transpired in the twentieth century, they have written relatively little on the practice in the nineteenth century. What has been written on the nineteenth century has either focused on specific types of crime (desertion or embezzlement) or on landmark legal decisions as a means to understand contemporary policies. First Nations, who suffered from irregular seizures alongside and like their American and Canadian counterparts, have largely been left out of these discussions. Ward, Linda C., “Forcible Abduction Made Fashionable: United States v. Alvarez-Machain's Extension of the Ker-Frisbie Doctrine,” Arkansas Law Review 47 (1994): 477–504 Google Scholar; Pyle, Christopher H., Extradition, Politics, and Human Rights (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001)Google Scholar; McDermott, John D., “Were They Really Rogues? Desertion in the Nineteenth-Century U.S. Army,” Nebraska History 78 (1997): 165–74Google Scholar; Nadelmann, Ethan A., “The Evolution of United States Involvement in the International Rendition of Fugitive Criminals,” New York University Journal of International Law and Politics 25 (1993): 813–85Google Scholar; Siegal, Charles D., “Individual Rights under Self-Executing Extradition Treaties—Dr. Alvarez-Machain's Case,” Loyola of Los Angeles International and Comparative Law Journal 13 (1991): 765–98Google Scholar; Semmelman, Jacques, “Due Process, International Law, and Jurisdiction over Criminal Defendants Abducted Extraterritorially: The Ker-Frisbie Doctrine Reexamined,” Columbia Journal of Transnational Law 30 (1992): 513–76Google Scholar; and Unterman, Katherine, Uncle Sam's Policemen: The Pursuit of Fugitives Across Borders (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015)Google Scholar.

4. L. Edwin Dudley to David J. Hill, “Marking of Boundary Line on Puget Sound Between United States and Canada,” May 10, 1900, Despatches Vancouver vol. 3; McKenna, Marian C., “Above the Blue Line: Policing the Frontier in the Canadian and American West, 1870–1900,” in The Borderlands of the American and Canadian Wests: Essays on Regional History of the Forty-Ninth Parallel, ed. Evans, Sterling (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2006), 95 Google Scholar; and A.W. Bash to James R. Hayden, February 2, 1882, RG 36, U.S. Customs Service, Puget Sound, Box 37 Letters sent to the Secretary of the Treasury 1881–1886, Book 1, National Archive Pacific Northwest Region.

5. West, Elliott, The Last Indian War: The Nez Perce Story (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 147–49Google Scholar; Morton, Desmond, “Cavalry or Police: Keeping the Peace on Two Adjacent Frontiers, 1870–1900,” Journal of Canadian Studies 12 (1977): 35 Google Scholar; A.L. Blake to A.W. Bash, September 8, 1884, RG 36, U.S. Customs Service, Puget Sound, Box 110, Letters Received from Subports and Inspectors, Osooyoos, Ft. Colville, Sehome, Seattle, 1882–1885, Folder 2, National Archive Pacific Northwest Region; Gibson, Dale, “Free Trade in Criminals: Canadian-American Extradition before 1890,” in Law, Policy, and International Justice: Essays in Honour of Maxwell Cohen, ed. Kaplan, William and McRae, Donald (McGill-Queen's University Press, 1993), 173 Google Scholar; and “Two Men Desert,” May 10, 1847, Isaac Cowie Fond, E 86/18, Scrap Book 1911–1912, Archive of Manitoba (hereafter AM).

6. British Columbia, “Attorney General Records,” n.d., T 0429 Microfilm BO 9323. Box 15, File 1, 208/08, British Columbia Archive (hereafter BCA); Zachary M. Hamilton, “Indian Justice,” n.d., 2–4, Zachary M. Hamilton Papers MG9 A50, M107, Folder 1, AM; William A. Pinkerton to H.A. Maclean, June 20, 1900, Attorney General Records, T 0429 Microfilm BO 9320. Box 6, File 1, 2375, BCA; Williams, David Ricardo, Call in Pinkerton's: American Detectives at Work for Canada (Toronto: Dundurn Press, 1998), 83–84 Google Scholar; “To Protect the Honor of the United States,” Daily Ledger, August 9, 1906, 1; Hugh C. Morris to Herbert H.D. Pierce, April 15, 1903, RG 59, Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Windsor, T492, Volume 4, Reel 4, NARA College Park; Butts, Edward, Line of Fire: Heroism, Tragedy, and Canada's Police (Toronto: Dundurn, 2009), 30 Google Scholar; and Canada, Report of the Commissioner of the North-West Mounted Police Force 1889 (Ottawa: MacLean, Roger & Co., 1890), 42 Google Scholar.

7. Webster, Daniel and Ashburton, “A Treaty to Settle and Define the Boundaries Between the Territories of the United States and the Possessions of Her Britannic Majesty in North America; For the Final Suppression of the African Slave-Trade; and for the Giving up of Criminals Fugitives from Justice, in Certain Cases. [Treaty of Webster-Ashburton] Concluded August 9, 1842,” in Treaties and Conventions Concluded Between the United States of America and Other Powers Since July 4, 1776, ed. Davis, J.C. Bancroft (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1873), 374 Google Scholar; Great Britain and United States, “Extradition Convention Between the United States of America and Her Britannic Majesty, Supplementary to the Tenth Article of the Treaty, Concluded Between the Same High Contracting Parties on the Ninth Day of August, 1842. Convention Signed at Washington July 12, 1889, Ratifications Exchanged March 11, 1890, Entered into Force April 4, 1890,” in Treaties and Other International Agreements of the United States of America, 1776–1949, vol. 12, Department of State Publication 8761 (Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1974), 212–13Google Scholar; Nadelmann, “The Evolution of United States Involvement,” 821; and Pyle, Extradition, Politics, and Human Rights, 26, 63–67.

8. RG 8–20 Despatches from the Department of the Provincial Secretary, Box 11, B224134, 100.192, 100.199, 100.204, 100.209, Archive of Ontario (hereafter AO); Treaty of Webster-Ashburton, 374; and Pyle, Extradition, Politics, and Human Rights, 10, 75–77, 90–91.

9. “Extradition,” Fort Benton Record, June 26, 1875, 1,  Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers, Library of Congress.

10. “The Extradition Case,” Helena Weekly Herald, July 22, 1875, 4, Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers, Library of Congress.

11. Ibid.

12. T. Fournier to Department of Justice, April 7, 1874, 8, Alexander Morris (Lieutenant-Governor's collection) MG 12 B1, Microfilm Reel M135, No 997, AM.

13. Gabriel Leveille, interview by L.H. Thomas, Textual, September 19, 1955, 20, General, C92, Saskatchewan Archives Board; LaDow, Beth, The Medicine Line: Life and Death on a North American Borderland (New York: Routledge, 2001), 31 Google Scholar; “Battle of Cypress Hills (Known as the Cypress Massacre),” November 18, 1886, Southern Alberta Research Project, M4561, Box 2, Folder 148, Glenbow Archives; Moore, John Bassett, Report on Extradition with Returns of All Cases from August 9, 1842 to January 1, 1890 and an Index (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1890), 202 Google Scholar; Fred Bagley, “The ‘74 Mounties,’” 1938, iii, Fred Bagley Fond, Series 1, M-43, Glenbow Archives; and George Shepherd, “North of the Border Up Canada Way: A Canadian Link to Fort Benton's History” (The River Press, August 11, 1940), Southern Alberta Research Project, M4561, Box 4, Folder 284, Glenbow Archives.

14. George D.C. Pruner to Attorney General Victoria BC, “State of Washington Versus J.B. Atkinson, Complaint and Warrant Regarding Cross Border Shooting 1898,” April 1, 1898, Attorney General Records, T 0429 Microfilm BO 9319, Box 4, File 2, 561/98, BCA; F.S. Hussy to Arthur G. Smith, “Atkinson Waives Extradition,” April 12, 1898, Attorney General Records, T 0429 Microfilm BO 9319, Box 4, File 2, 603/98, BCA; and J.W. Romairy to F.S. Hussey, “J.B. Atkinson Shoots William Pattison Across BC Washington Boundary Line, Issue of Jurisdiction 1898,” March 18, 1898, Attorney General Records, T 0429 Microfilm BO 9319, Box 4, File 2, 467/98, BCA.

15. Dudley to Hill, December 7, 1899; Unterman, Uncle Sam's Policemen, 9; “Outwitted the Officer: An American Sheriff Deprived His Prisoner in British Territory,” News Advertiser, April 23, 1899, Attorney General Records, T 0429 Microfilm BO 9319, Box 4, File 2, 646/98, BCA.

16. “Untitled,” Emporia Weekly News, September 17, 1885, 2.

17. Pyle, Extradition, Politics, and Human Rights, 25–26, 36–37, 47, 63–66; Miller, Bradley, “‘A Carnival of Crime on Our Border’: International Law, Imperial Power, and Extradition in Canada, 1865–1883,” Canadian Historical Review 90 (2009): 647 Google Scholar; Reid, Richard M., African Canadians in Union Blue: Volunteering for the Cause in the Civil War (Vancouver: Canada University of British Columbia Press, 2014), 22–23 Google Scholar; and Unterman, Uncle Sam's Policemen, 35.

18. I use this definition of irregular justice to describe legal situations in which the jurisdiction of each country was clear and official representatives of the state either conducted the actions or were complicit in them. I do not use this term to encompass transnational captures that occurred in disputed territory (the Fenian raid at Pembina and the Aroostook War), abductions without a judicial aim (British impressments of American sailors), or abductions perpetrated by non-state actors for personal gain (slave owners trying to regain their chattel). I have included private detectives that operated on behalf of non-state actors (banks) for both judicial aims (bringing embezzlers back to stand trial) and personal aims (recovering stolen property) within this definition. Private detective agencies served both the State Department and private companies in much the same capacity, blurring the lines between justice as a purchasable commodity and as a public good. Unterman, Uncle Sam's Policemen, 9; and I.A. Dinsmore to F.S. Hussey, “Rex versus Frank Ceddio Extradition 1908,” February 5, 1908, Attorney General Records, T 0429 Microfilm BO 9323. Box 15, File 1, 630/08, BCA; Dudley to Hill, December 7, 1899.

19. Vermont, Supreme Court, Reports of Cases Argued and Determined in the Supreme Court of the State of Vermont, vol. VII (Middlebury: Knapp and Jewett, 1836), 121 Google Scholar.

20. Moore, John Bassett, A Treatise on Extradition and Interstate Rendition, vol. 1 (Boston: Boston Book Company, 1891), 294–95Google Scholar; and Vermont Supreme Court, Report of Cases Argued, VII:118.

21. United States, “Doc. No. 2. Correspondence Relating to the Case of James Grogan,” in Message from the President of the United States to the Two Houses of Congress, 27th Congress, 2d Session, House of Reps, Executive (Washington, DC: Gale and Seaton, 1841), 42–44 Google Scholar; Moore, A Treatise on Extradition 1:282–83; “Daring Outrage!” Niles' National Register 11, no. 5, October 2, 1841, 68; “Grogan Released,” Niles' National Register 11, no. 7, October 16, 1841, 100; and Carroll, Francis M., A Good and Wise Measure: The Search for the Canadian-American Boundary, 1783–1842 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2001), 217–18Google Scholar.

22. Parker, Amasa J., Reports of Decisions in Criminal Cases Made at Term, at Chambers, and in the Courts of Oyer and Terminer of the State of New York, vol. IV (Albany: Weare C. Little, 1860), 253 Google Scholar.

23. Ibid., 254

24. Moore, A Treatise on Extradition 1: 295–96.

25. Britain also set historic precedence for prosecuting suspected criminals through irregular means at approximately the same time. British courts ruled in Ex parte Susannah Scott in 1829, for example, that the abduction of Susannah Scott from Brussels by English police officers did not invalidate the charges against her. O'Higgins, Paul, “Unlawful Seizure and Irregular Extradition,” British Year Book of International Law 36 (1960): 282 Google Scholar; and Schwabach, Aaron and Patchett, S.A., “Doctrine or Dictum: The Ker-Frisbie Doctrine and Official Abductions Which Breach International Law,” University of Miami Inter-American Law Review 25 (1993): 23 Google Scholar.

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29. H.H. Sibley to Joseph Holt, December 14, 1864, M68, Roll 1, U.S. Army Judge Advocate General Papers, Re Trials of Medicine Bottle and Little Six 1862–1865 Roll 1. [Originals held at NARA], Minnesota Historical Society (hereafter MHS); and Chomsky, “The United States-Dakota War Trials,” 43–44.

30. J. Holt to Secretary of War, “The Case of Shakopee and Medicine Bottle Sioux Indians under Sentence of Death Is Respectfully Returned to the Secretary of War for the President,” November 17, 1865, M68, Roll 1, U.S. Army Judge Advocate General Papers, Re Trials of Medicine Bottle and Little Six 1862–1865 Roll 1. [Originals held at NARA], MHS.

31. Bessler, Legacy of Violence, 65.

32. John H. Mackenzie to William W. Folwell, Aug. 25, 1906, Dakota Conflict of 1862 Manuscript Collections, M582, Reel 2, 1977B; 1781G3, 55102, MHS.

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69. L. Edwin Dudley to David J. Hill, Oct. 6, 1900, Despatches Vancouver vol. 3.

70. Unterman, Uncle Sam's Policemen, 100.

71. Abductions in the twentieth century occurred for many of the same reasons that they had during the nineteenth century. They impacted First Nations, deserters, and common criminals alike and continued to lead to inconsistent results. Supreme Court of Minnesota, State v. Porter 144 N.W. 2d 260 (1966); Kasinsky, Renée G., “Fugitives from Injustice: Vietnam War Draft Dodgers and Deserters in British Columbia,” in The Borderlands of the American and Canadian Wests: Essays on Regional History of the Forty-Ninth Parallel, ed. Evans, Sterling (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2006), 270–74Google Scholar; “U.S. Frees a Deserter After Canada Protests,” New York Times, August 31, 1974, 10; Gluck, Jonathan A., “The Customary International Law of State-Sponsored International Abduction and United States Courts,” Duke Law Journal 44 (1994): 636 Google Scholar; United States v. Lazore, 90 F. Supp. 2d 202 (N.D.N.Y. 2000); Schwabach and Patchett, “Doctrine or Dictum,” 48; Corbett, William H. and Kleiboemer, Axel, “United States Supreme Court: Brief of the Government of Canada as Amicus Curiae in Support of Respondent in United States v. Alvarez-Machain,” International Legal Materials 31 (1992): 926–30Google Scholar; Abramovsky, Abraham, “Extraterritorial Abductions: America's ‘Catch and Snatch’ Policy Run Amok,” Virginia Journal of International Law 31 (1990/1991): 204 Google Scholar; and Hernández, Kelly Lytle, Migra!: A History of the U.S. Border Patrol (Berkley: University of California Press, 2010)Google Scholar.