Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-r5fsc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-24T19:17:14.510Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Why Terra Nullius? Anthropology and Property Law in Early Australia

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 August 2010

Extract

The British treated Australia as terra nullius—as unowned land. Under British colonial law, aboriginal Australians had no property rights in the land, and colonization accordingly vested ownership of the entire continent in the British government. The doctrine of terra nullius remained the law in Australia throughout the colonial period, and indeed right up to 1992.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © the Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois 2005

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1. Mabo v. Queensland, 175 CLR 1 (1992).

2. This account of British land policy in North America is at odds with some recent scholarship, such as Seed, Patricia, American Pentimento: The Invention of Indians and the Pursuit of Riches (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2001), 1244Google Scholar; andArmitage, David, The Ideological Origins of the British Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 97CrossRefGoogle Scholar. I discuss British land policy in North America inBanner, Stuart, How the Indians Lost Their Land (Harvard University Press, forthcoming)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

3. Orange, Claudia, The Treaty of Waitangi (Wellington: Allen & Unwin, 1987Google Scholar);Banner, Stuart, “Conquest by Contract: Wealth Transfer and Land Market Structure in Colonial New Zealand,” Law and Society Review 34 (2000): 4796CrossRefGoogle Scholar;Banner, Stuart, “Two Properties, One Land: Law and Space in Nineteenth-Century New Zealand,” Law and Social Inquiry 24 (1999): 807–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

4. Reynolds, Henry, This Whispering in Our Hearts (St. Leonards, NSW: Allen & Unwin, 1998), 190.Google Scholar

5. See especially Reynolds, Henry, The Law of the Land (Ringwood, Vic.: Penguin Books, 1987Google Scholar), a book to which I owe an enormous debt. The first question has not even been asked because previous authors have not recognized how different land policy in Australia was from land policy in North America and New Zealand. The second is raised implicitly throughout the work of Reynolds and Kercher (especially Reynolds), but because neither writer treats it explicitly, neither has any occasion to attempt an explicit answer.

6. Beaglehole, J. C., ed., The Journals of Captain Cook on His Voyages of Discovery (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1955-1974), 1:514.Google Scholar

7. Bennett, J. M. and Castles, Alex C., eds., A Source Book of Australian Legal History (Sydney: The Law Book Company, 1979), 253–54 (emphasis added).Google Scholar

8. Brigham, Clarence S., ed., British Royal Proclamations Relating to America 1603-1783 (1911; New York: Burt Franklin, 1964), 212–18Google Scholar; CO 5/65, p. 43, Public Record Office, Kew (hereafter PRO); Marete Borch, “Rethinking the Origins of Terra nullius,”Australian Historical Studies 117 (2001): 222–39Google Scholar.

9. Frost, Alan, Convicts and Empire: A Naval Question 1776-1811 (Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1980), 32Google Scholar;King, Jonathan, ed., “In the Beginning …”: The Story of the Creation of Australia from the Original Writings (South Melbourne: Macmillan, 1985), 76Google Scholar.

10. Beaglehole, , ed., Journals of Captain James Cook, 1: 312Google Scholar;Beaglehole, J. C., ed., The Endeavour Journal of Joseph Banks 1768-1771 (Sydney: Angus & Robertson, 1962), 2:122–23Google Scholar;Beaglehole, , ed., Journals of Captain James Cook, 2:735Google Scholar;King, , ed., “In the Beginning …,” 115Google Scholar.

11. English cases discussing the proposition include Geary v. Barecroft, 82 Eng. Rep. 1148 (K.B. 1667), and Holden v. Smallbrooke, 124 Eng. Rep. 1030 (C.P. 1668). See also Wood, Thomas, An Institute of the Laws of England, 3d ed. (London: Richard Sare, 1724), 216Google Scholar. European theoretical treatments includeGrotius, Hugo, The Law of War and Peace (1625), trans. Francis W. Kelsey (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1925), 202Google Scholar, andPufendorf, Samuel, De Jure Naturae et Gentium (1688), trans. C. H. Oldfather and W. A. Oldfather (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1934), 2:569–73Google Scholar.

12. Raleigh, Walter, “A Discourse of the Original and Fundamental Cause of Natural, Arbitrary, Necessary, and Unnatural War,” in The Works of Sir Walter Ralegh, Kt. (Oxford: University Press, 1829), 8:255Google Scholar; John Donne, “A Sermon Preached to the Honourable Company of the Virginian Plantation” (London: Thomas Jones, 1622), inThe Sermons of John Donne, ed. Potter, George R. and Simpson, Evelyn M. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1959), 4:274Google Scholar;Vattel, Emerich de, The Law of Nations (1758), ed. Ingraham, Edward D. (Philadelphia: T. & J. W. Johnson, 1853), 36Google Scholar.

13. Beaglehole, , ed., Journals of Captain James Cook, 1:312, 396, 393, 2:735.Google Scholar

14. Lovejoy, Arthur O. and Boas, George, Primitivism and Related Ideas in Antiquity (1935) (New York: Octagon Books, 1965Google Scholar);Cole, Thomas, Democritus and the Sources of Greek Anthropology ([Cleveland]: American Philological Association, 1967), 3638Google Scholar.

15. Cicero, , De Officiis, trans. Walter Miller (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1947), 23Google Scholar;Seneca, , Ad Lucilium Epistulae Morales, trans. Richard M. Gummere (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1920), 2:423Google Scholar. See alsoTibullus, , Elegies, trans. Theodore C. Williams (Boston: Richard G. Badger, 1905), 2324Google Scholar;Ovid, , Metamorphoses, trans. A. D. Melville (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986), 45Google Scholar;Hamilton, Edith and Cairns, Huntington, eds., The Collected Dialogues of Plato (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1961), 1037Google Scholar;McKeon, Richard, ed., The Basic Works of Aristotle (New York: Random House, 1941), 1138Google Scholar.

16. The Geography of Strabo, trans. Horace Leonard Jones (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1917-1932), 3:207Google Scholar;Horace, , The Complete Odes and Epodes with the Centennial Hymn, trans. W. G. Shepherd (Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1983), 155Google Scholar;Caesar, Julius, The Gallic War, trans. H. J. Edwards (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1917), 347Google Scholar.

17. Justin, , Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus, trans. J. C. Yardley (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1994), 27Google Scholar;Virgil, , Georgics, trans. Smith Palmer Bovie (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1956), 10Google Scholar;Ovid, , The Erotic Poems, trans. Peter Green (London: Penguin Books, 1982), 153Google Scholar.

18. Aquinas, Thomas, Summa Theologica ([Cambridge, Eng.]: Blackfriars, 1964-), 37:13Google Scholar;Moffitt, John F. and Sebastian, Santiago, O Brave New People: The European Invention of the American Indian (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1996), 6975Google Scholar;Stein, Peter, “The Four Stage Theory of the Development of Societies,” in The Character and Influence of the Roman Civil Law: Historical Essays (London: Hambledon Press, 1988), 395409Google Scholar;Smith, Adam, Lectures on Jurisprudence (delivered 1760s), ed. Meek, R. L., Raphael, D. D., and Stein, P. G. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978), 459Google Scholar;Meek, Ronald L., Social Science and the Ignoble Savage (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976Google Scholar);Blackstone, William, Commentaries on the Laws of England (1765-1769), 9th ed. (London: W. Strahan et al., 1783), 2:7Google Scholar.

19. Vattel, , The Law of Nations, 100.Google Scholar

20. Calloway, Colin G., ed., Revolution and Confederation (1994), vol. 18Google ScholarofEarly American Indian Documents: Treaties and Laws, 1607-1789, ed. Vaughan, Alden T. (Washington: University Publications of America, 1979-), 452–53Google Scholar;Beaglehole, , ed., Journals of Captain James Cook, 1:396Google Scholar;King, , ed., “In the Beginning …,” 6061Google Scholar.

21. Beaglehole, , ed., Journals of Captain James Cook, 1:312Google Scholar, 1:399;King, , ed., “In the Beginning …,” 5556Google Scholar.

22. Carter, Paul, The Road to Botany Bay: An Exploration of Landscape and History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987Google Scholar);Historical Records of New South Wales (Sydney: Charles Potter, 1892-1901), 1(2):1Google Scholar;A Description of Botany Bay, on the East Side of New Holland (Lancaster: H. Walmsley, [1787Google Scholar]) (Sydney: National Library of Australia, 1983), 8.

23. Castles, Alex C., An Australian Legal History (Sydney: Law Book Co., 1982), 23Google Scholar;Historical Records of New South Wales, 1(2):87Google Scholar; Alan Frost, “New South Wales as Terra nullius: The British Denial of Aboriginal Land Rights,”Historical Studies 19 (1981): 513–23CrossRefGoogle Scholar;King, Robert J., “Terra Australis: Terra Nullius aut Terra Aboriginium?Journal of the Royal Australian Historical Society 72 (1986): 7591Google Scholar.

24. Kupperman, Karen Ordahl, Indians and English: Facing Off in Early America (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2000Google Scholar);Dampier, William, A New Voyage Round the World (London, 1697) (London: Argonaut Press, 1927), 312Google Scholar;Historical Records of New South Wales, 1(2):222Google Scholar, 2:744, 2:748;Beaglehole, , ed., Journals of Captain Cook, 3:786Google Scholar;Historical Records of New South Wales, 2:796Google Scholar, 2:818; William Walker to Richard Watson, 5 Dec. 1821, Bonwick Transcripts, 52:1047, Mitchell Library, Sydney (hereafter ML);Caley, George to Joseph Banks, 16 Feb. 1809, in George Caley, Reflections on the Colony of New South Wales, ed. Currey, J. E. B. (Melbourne: Landsdowne Press, 1966), 177–78Google Scholar.

25. Historical Records of New South Wales, 2:663Google Scholar; Ann Gore to “My dear Mary Ann,” 29 Sept. 1837, inHeney, Helen, ed., Dear Fanny: Women's Letters to and from New South Wales, 1788-1857 (Rushcutters Bay, NSW: Australian National University Press, 1985), 130Google Scholar; George Worgan to his brother, June 1788, C830, ML;[Lucett, Edward,] Rovings in the Pacific, from 1837 to 1849 (London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1851), 1:56Google Scholar;Hunter, John, An Historical Journal of the Transactions at Port Jackson and Norfolk Island (London: John Stockdale, 1793), 58Google Scholar.

26. James Campbell to Dr. Farr, 24 March 1791, Doc. 1174, ML. British men would overcome their squeamishness. By the 1840s the colonial government was concerned that there were too many “half-caste” children being born and that many of them quickly became victims of infanticide in Aboriginal communities. Report from the Committee on Immigration (Sydney: W. J. Row, 1841), 36Google Scholar;Westgarth, William, A Report on the Condition, Capabilities, and Prospects of the Australian Aborigines (Melbourne: William Clarke, 1846), 15Google Scholar.

27. [Mudie, Robert,] The Picture of Australia (London: Whittaker, Treacher, and Co., 1829), 228.Google Scholar

28. William Pascoe Crook to Joseph Hardcastle, 8 Nov. 1803, Bonwick Transcripts, 49:215, ML;Irvine, Nance, ed., The Sirius Letters: The Complete Letters of Newton Fowell, Midshipman & Lieutenant Aboard the Sirius (Sydney: Fairfax Library, 1988), 90Google Scholar;A Voyage to New South Wales: The Journal of Lieutenant William Bradley RN of HMS Sirius 1786-1792 (Sydney: Trustees of the Public Library of New South Wales, 1969), 140Google Scholar;Hunter, , An Historical Journal, 59-60; The Voyage of Governor Phillip to Botany Bay (London: John Stockdale, 1789), 106–7Google Scholar.

29. Flood, Josephine, Archaeology of the Dreamtime, rev. ed. (Sydney: Collins, 1989), 229–45Google Scholar;Tench, Watkin, A Narrative of the Expedition to Botany Bay (London, 1789Google Scholar), reprinted inTench, Watkin, Sydney's First Four Years (Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1961), 48Google Scholar;Mrs. Sinnett, Percy, Hunters and Fishers: or, Sketches of Primitive Races in the Lands Beyond the Sea (London: Chapman and Hall, 1846), 41Google Scholar;Tuckey, J. H., An Account of a Voyage to Establish a Colony at Port Philip in Bass's Strait, on the South Coast of New South Wales (London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, and Orme, 1805), 180Google Scholar.

30. Blackburn, D. to Knight, R., 19 March 1791, Ab 163, ML; Knight, R. J. B. and Frost, Alan, eds., The Journal of Daniel Paine, 1794-1797 (Sydney: Library of Australian History, 1983), 39Google Scholar;Tench, Watkin, A Complete Account of the Settlement at Port Jackson (London, 1793Google Scholar), reprinted in Tench, Sydney's First Four Years, 281;M'Combie, Thomas, Australian Sketches, 2d ed. (Melbourne: Gazette Office, 1847), 244Google Scholar; “Civilization of the Aborigines,” Arden's Sydney Magazine, Oct. 1843, 66;Henderson, John, Observations on the Colonies of New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land (Calcutta: Baptist Mission Press, 1832), 152Google Scholar. See alsoLatham, Robert Gordon, The Natural History of the Varieties of Man (London: John Van Voorst, 1850), 223Google Scholar.

31. A Few Words on the Aborigines of Australia,” New South Wales Magazine 1 (1843): 5859Google Scholar; Barron Field, “On the Aborigines of New Holland and Van Diemen's Land,” inField, Barron, ed., Geographical Memoirs on New South Wales (London: John Murray, 1825), 202–4Google Scholar;Russell, to Gipps, George, 25 August 1840, British Parliamentary Papers: Colonies: Australia (Shannon: Irish University Press, 1968-), 8:73Google Scholar.

32. Holman, James, Travels in China, New Zealand, New South Wales, Van Diemen's Land, Cape Horn, etc., etc., 2d ed. (London: George Routledge, 1840), 475Google Scholar;Flinders, Matthew, Observations on the Coasts of Van Diemen's Land, on Bass's Strait and its Islands, and on Part of the Coasts of New South Wales (London: John Nicholas, 1801), 20Google Scholar;Dove, T., “Moral and Social Characteristics of the Aborigines of Tasmania,” Tasmanian Journal of Natural Science 1 (1842): 249Google Scholar;Orton, Joseph, Aborigines of Australia (London: Thoms, 1836), 3Google Scholar.

33. Robert Scott to his mother, 16 August 1801, Doc. 1109, ML; P[eter] Cunningham, , Two Years in New South Wales (London: Henry Colburn, 1827), 2:46Google Scholar;[Betts, T.,] An Account of the Colony of Van Diemen's Land (Calcutta: Baptist Mission Press, 1830), 95Google Scholar;Napier, Charles James, Colonization; Particularly in Southern Australia (London: T. & W. Boone, 1835), 94Google Scholar;Dredge, James, Brief Notices of the Aborigines of New South Wales (Geelong: James Harrison, 1845), 910Google Scholar.

34. Cunningham, , Two Years in New South Wales, 2:46CrossRefGoogle Scholar;Grant, James, The Narrative of a Voyage of Discovery, Performed in His Majesty's Vessel The Lady Nelson (London: T. Egerton, 1803), 167Google Scholar;Collins, David, An Account of the English Colony in New South Wales (London, 1798-1802) (Christchurch: Whitcombe and Tombs, 1910), 299Google Scholar.

35. Morgan, Sharon, Land Settlement in Early Tasmania: Creating an Antipodean England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 143–60Google Scholar; John C. Weaver, “Beyond the Fatal Shore: Pastoral Squatting and the Occupation of Australia, 1826 to 1852,” American Historical Review 101 (1996): 981-1007;Historical Records of New South Wales, 1(2):346Google Scholar, 2:769;Reynolds, Henry, Fate of a Free People (Ringwood, Vic.: Penguin Books, 1995Google Scholar);Reynolds, Henry, The Other Side of the Frontier: Aboriginal Resistance to the European Invasion of Australia (Ringwood, Vic.: Penguin Books, 1982Google Scholar);British Parliamentary Papers: Colonies: Australia, 3:199Google Scholar.

36. Kercher, Bruce, Debt, Seduction and Other Disasters: The Birth of Civil Law in Convict New South Wales (Sydney: Federation Press, 1996), 85Google Scholar;Scott, James, Remarks on a Passage to Botany Bay, 1787-1792 (Sydney: Trustees of the Public Library of New South Wales, 1963), 34Google Scholar;Breton, H.W., Excursions in New South Wales, Western Australia, and Van Dieman's Land [sic] (London: Richard Bentley, 1833), 219Google Scholar.

37. Historical Records of Australia (Sydney: Library Committee of the Commonwealth Parliament, 1914-), series IV, 1:330Google Scholar. There may be earlier formal statements of terra nullius lurking in unpublished court records. Continuous law reporting did not begin in New South Wales until the 1860s.

38. Historical Records of Australia, series IV, 1:414.

39. Phillip, to Nepean, , 9 July 1788, Historical Records of New South Wales, 1(2):153Google Scholar. Phillip had anticipated that such would be the case.Frost, Alan, Arthur Phillip 1738-1814: His Voyaging (Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1987), 144Google Scholar.

40. William Bradley, manuscript journal, 75 (4 Feb. 1788), A3631, ML; Butlin, N. G., Economics and the Dreamtime: A Hypothetical History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 139.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

41. Hunter, An Historical Journal, 62. Hunter's book bears a publication date of 1793, but his observations are dated 1788.

42. Phillip, to Sydney, , 13 Feb. 1790, Historical Records of New South Wales, 1(2):309Google Scholar;Dawson, Robert, The Present State of Australia, 2d ed. (London: Smith, Elder and Co., 1831), 63Google Scholar. For modern discussions of Aboriginal property systems in the first half of the nineteenth century, seeHiatt, L. R., Arguments about Aborigines: Australia and the Evolution of Social Anthropology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 1335Google Scholar;Critchett, Jan, A “Distant Field of Murder”: Western District Frontiers 1834-1848 (Carlton, Vic.: Melbourne University Press, 1990), 3751Google Scholar;Hallam, Sylvia J., Fire and Hearth: A Study of Aboriginal Usage and European Usurpation in South-Western Australia (Canberra: Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies, 1979), 4143Google Scholar.

43. Collins, , An Account of the English Colony, 327Google Scholar. The same story, probably copied from Collins, appears in a slightly later account published, probably pseudonymously, under the name of the pickpocketBarrington, George, The History of New South Wales (London: M. Jones, 1802), 24Google Scholar.

44. Moore, George Fletcher, Diary of Ten Years Eventful Life of an Early Settler in Western Australia (London: M. Walbrook, 1884), 259Google Scholar(diary entry for 26 March 1835);Clark, Ian D., ed., The Journals of George Augustus Robinson, Chief Protector, Port Phillip Aboriginal Protectorate, 2d ed. (Ballarat, Victoria: Heritage Matters, 2000), 2:311Google Scholar(journal entry for 17 July 1841).

45. Karsten, Peter, Between Law and Custom: “High” and “Low” Legal Cultures in the Lands of the British Diaspora—The United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, 1600-1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 256–61Google Scholar;King, to Hobart, , 20 Dec. 1804, Historical Records of Australia, series I, 5:166Google Scholar;Plomley, N. J. B., ed., Friendly Mission: The Tasmania Journals and Papers of George Augustus Robinson, 1829-1834 (Kingsgrove, NSW: Tasmanian Historical Research Association, 1966), 88Google Scholar(journal entry for 23 Nov. 1829).

46. Portland, to Hunter, , 26 Feb. 1800, Historical Records of New South Wales, 4:58.Google Scholar

47. Baudin, to King, , 23 Dec. 1802, Historical Records of New South Wales, 5:830.Google Scholar

48. King to Bligh, n.d. 1807, Philip Gidley King Papers, C189, p. 273, ML.

49. Ritchie, John, Lachlan Macquarie: A Biography (Carlton, Vic.: Melbourne University Press, 1986), 132Google Scholar; Proclamation, 10 Dec. 1814, Supreme Court: Miscellaneous Correspondence Relating to Aborigines, 5/1161, 1:16-17, State Records New South Wales, Sydney (hereafter SRNSW).

50. Sydney Gazette, 20 April 1827, 2; Australia: An Appeal to the World on Behalf of the Younger Branch of the Family of Shem (Sydney: Spilsbury and M'Eachern, 1839Google Scholar), ix; “New Holland,”South-Asian Register 2 (1828): 115Google Scholar.

51. Plomley, , ed., Friendly Mission, 202–3Google Scholar;Threlkeld, Lancelot E., Report of the Mission to the Aborigines at Lake Macquarie, New South Wales (Sydney: Herald Office, [1838]), 2Google Scholar;The Report of the Aborigines' Committee of the Meeting for Sufferings, Read at the Yearly Meeting 1840 (London: Harvey and Darton, 1840), 9Google Scholar.

52. Sydney Herald, 16 Feb. 1835, 2Google Scholar;Southern Australian, 8 May 1839, 3:4Google Scholar;Strzelecki, Paul Edmund de, Physical Description of New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land (London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1845), 348Google Scholarn., 340;Dredge, , Brief Notices, 14Google Scholar;[M'Combie, Thomas,] Adventures of a Colonist (London: John & Daniel A. Darling, [1845]), 267Google Scholar. For similar doubts, seeWestmacott, Arthur, “The ‘Australian Aborigines,’” Colonial Magazine and East India Review 21 (1851): 398Google Scholar;A Plea on Behalf of the Aboriginal Inhabitants of Victoria (Geelong: Advertiser Office, 1856), 56Google Scholar.

53. Bruce Kercher, “Native Title in the Shadows: The Origins of the Myth of Terra nullius in Early New South Wales Courts,” in Colonialism and the Modern World: Selected Studies, ed. Blue, Gregory et al. (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 2002), 100–19Google Scholar; Bruce Kercher, “The Recognition of Aboriginal Status and Laws in the Supreme Court of New South Wales under Forbes, CJ, 1824-1836,” inLand and Freedom: Law, Property Rights and the British Diaspora, ed. Buck, A. R., McLaren, John, and Wright, Nancy E. (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2001), 83102Google Scholar.

54. R. v. Lowe (1827), in Decisions of the Superior Courts of New South Wales, 1788-1899, ed. Bruce Kercher, www.law.mq.edu.au/scnsw (visited 10 June 2002).

55. R. v. Jackey (1834); R. v. Lego'me (1835); R. v. Murrell (1836), all in Kercher, ed., Decisions. For a similar claim, with a more ambivalent judicial response, see R. v. Bonjon (1841), in Kercher, ed., Decisions.

56. Knaplund, Paul, James Stephen and the British Colonial System 1813-1847 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1953), 8384Google Scholar;British Parliamentary Papers: Anthropology: Aborigines (Shannon: Irish University Press, 1968-1969), 2:4, 5, 8283Google Scholar.

57. Grey to Torrens, 15 Dec. 1835, CO 13/3, p. 112, PRO; Julie Cassidy, “A Reappraisal of Aboriginal Land Policy in Colonial Australia: Imperial and Colonial Instruments and Legislation Recognising the Special Rights and Status of the Australian Aboriginals,” Journal of Legal History 10 (1989): 365–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

58. Torrens to Grey, Dec. 1835, CO 13/3, p. 161, PRO; “First Annual Report of the Colonization Commissioners for South Australia,” 14 June 1836, British Parliamentary Papers: Colonies: Australia, 4:480Google Scholar; “Second Letter of Instructions by the Colonization Commissioners for South Australia to James Hurtle Fisher, Esq., Resident Commissioner in South Australia,” 8 Oct. 1836,British Parliamentary Papers: Colonies: Australia, 5:192Google Scholar. See also “Letter of Instructions by the Colonization Commissioners of South Australia to his Excellency Lieutenant-Colonel George Gawler, Resident Commissioner in South Australia,” 25 May 1838,British Parliamentary Papers: Colonies: Australia, 5:347Google Scholar.

59. Gawler to Russell, 1 August 1840, CO 13/16, p. 56, PRO. 60. C. P. Billot, John Batman: The Story of John Batman and the Founding of Melbourne (Melbourne: Hyland House, 1979), 79102Google Scholar;Campbell, Alistair H., John Batman and the Aborigines (Malmsbury, Vic.: Kibble Books, [1987]), 8498Google Scholar. The treaties by which Batman believed he had purchased the land are published inBonwick, James, John Batman: The Founder of Victoria, 2d ed. (Melbourne, 1868), ed. Sayers, C. E. (Melbourne: Wren Publishing, 1973), 8487Google Scholar.

61. Enclosure in Mercer to Glenelg, 6 April 1836, Historical Records of Australia, series I, 18:389.

62. This is the opinion of the lawyer and MP William Burge, 16 Jan. 1836, reprinted in Westgarth, William, Australia Felix (Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd, 1848), 394–97.Google Scholar

63. Grey, to Mercer, , 14 April 1836, Historical Records of Australia, series I, 18:390.Google Scholar

64. A. G. L. Shaw, “British Policy Towards the Australian Aborigines, 1830-1850,” Australian Historical Studies 25 (1992): 265–85CrossRefGoogle Scholar;Bennett, J. M., ed., Some Papers of Sir Francis Forbes (Sydney: Parliament of New South Wales, 1998), 228Google Scholar; R. v. Steele (1834), inKercher, , ed., Decisions; Normanby to Gipps, 29 June 1839, CO 202/40, p. 127Google Scholar, PRO; Attorney-General v. Brown, 1 Legge 312 (1847); A. R. Buck, “‘Strangers in Their Own Land’: Capitalism, Dispossession and the Law,” inBuck, A. R. et al., eds., Land and Freedom, 3956Google Scholar.

65. British Parliamentary Papers: Colonies: Australia, 2:147Google Scholar; Campbell to Burton, 22 June 1838, Supreme Court: Miscellaneous Correspondence Relating to Aborigines, 5/1161, 2:492, SRNSW;Hodgkinson, Clement, Australia, from Port Macquarie to Moreton Bay (London: T. and W. Boone, 1845), 242Google Scholar;Haygarth, Henry William, Reminiscences of Bush Life in Australia, During a Residence of Eight Years in the Interior (London, 1848) (London: John Murray, 1861), 107Google Scholar. See alsoBartlett, Thomas, New Holland: Its Colonization, Productions & Resources (London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1843), 70Google Scholar.

66. Sydney Gazette, 19 August 1824, 4:1Google Scholar;Windeyer, Richard, “On the Rights of the Aborigines of Australia” (ca. 1842), A1400, 32, ML; Southern Australian, 8 May 1839, 2:5Google Scholar; “The Aborigines of New Holland,”The Blossom 1 (1828): 4647Google Scholar;Sydney Herald, 5 December 1838, 2:1Google Scholar;Howitt, Richard, Impressions of Australia Felix, During Four Years' Residence in that Colony (London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1845), 277Google Scholar;Kittle, Samuel, A Concise History of the Colony and Natives of New South Wales (Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd, [1815]), 7Google Scholar.

67. Report from the Select Committee on the Aborigines and Protectorate (Sydney: W. W. Davies, 1849), 20Google Scholar;Parker, Edward Stone, The Aborigines of Australia (Melbourne: Hugh M'Coll, 1854), 30Google Scholar;Butlin, N. G., Forming a Colonial Economy, Australia 1810-1850 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 210–13CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

68. Pridden, William, Australia, Its History and Present Condition, 2d ed. (London: James Burns, 1845), 7273;Google ScholarGraham's Town Journal, 22 February 1844, CO 386/155, p. 164Google Scholar, PRO;Macquarie, Lachlan, Journals of His Tours in New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land 1810-1822 (Sydney: Trustees of the Public Library of New South Wales, 1956), 160Google Scholar.

69. Reece, R. H. W., Aborigines and Colonists: Aborigines and Colonial Society in New South Wales in the 1830s and 1840s (Sydney: Sydney University Press, 1974), 166–69.Google Scholar

70. Bannister, Saxe, Humane Policy; or Justice to the Aborigines of New Settlements (London: Thomas and George Underwood, 1830), 51Google Scholar, 87. See alsoBannister, Saxe, British Colonization and Coloured Tribes (London: William Ball, 1838), 277Google Scholar.

71. Report from the Committee on the Aborigines Question (Sydney: J. Spilsbury, 1838), 31Google Scholar, 33;Maconochie, Alexander, Thoughts on Convict Management (Hobart: J. C. MacDougall, 1838), 192Google Scholar;Hodgson, Christopher Pemberton, Reminiscences of Australia, with Hints on the Squatter's Life (London: W. N. Wright, 1846), 76Google Scholar;Report from the Select Committee on the Condition of the Aborigines (Sydney: W. W. Davies, 1845), 10Google Scholar.

72. Quoted in Reynolds, Henry, An Indelible Stain? The Question of Genocide in Australia's History (Ringwood, Vic.: Viking, 2001), 99Google Scholar;Walker, William to Watson, Richard, 29 November 1821, Bonwick Transcripts, 52:1043–44, MLGoogle Scholar.

73. British Parliamentary Papers: Colonies: Australia, 2:211, 2:216–17.Google Scholar

74. Goodall, Heather, Invasion to Embassy: Land in Aboriginal Politics in New South Wales, 1770-1992 (St. Leonards, NSW: Allen & Unwin, 1996), 4456Google Scholar; Macquarie to Bathurst, 24 February 1820 and 27 July 1822,British Parliamentary Papers: Colonies: Australia, 4:155 and 3:329Google Scholar; Proclamation, June 1838, Supreme Court: Miscellaneous Correspondence Relating to Aborigines, 5/1161, 2:495, SRNSW.

75. Kercher, Cf. Bruce, An Unruly Child: A History of Law in Australia (St. Leonards, NSW: Allen & Unwin, 1995), 19.Google Scholar

76. Glenelg, to Bourke, , 13 April 1836, Historical Records of Australia, series I, 18:379Google Scholar;Grey, to Mercer, , 14 April 1836, Historical Records of Australia, series I, 18:390Google Scholar;South Australian Register, 1 August 1840, 5:1Google Scholar.

77. CO 1/63, pp. 119, 116, PRO; The Declaration of the Gentlemen, Merchants, and Inhabitants of Boston (Boston, 1689Google Scholar), in The Andros Tracts, ed. Whitmore, W. H. (Boston: Prince Society, 1868-1874), 1:1516Google Scholar (emphasis in the original).