^1. Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Avon Books, 1993). The most commonly invoked “recalcitrants” are the Cubans, the North Koreans, assorted Islamic fundamentalists, and drug traffickers.

^2. See Samuel Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of the New World Order (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996); and Fareed Zakaria, “The Rise of Illiberal Democracy,” Foreign Affairs 76, no. 6 (Nov.–Dec. 1997):22–43. An intriguing response to such analyses is John Gray, “Global Utopias and Clashing Civilizations: Misunderstanding the Present,” International Affairs 74, no. 1 (Jan. 1998):149–64.

^3. Robert Snyder, “The End of Revolution?” Review of Politics 61, no. 1 (1999):5–28; and Jeff Goodwin, “Is the Age of Revolution Over?” in Revolutions and International Affairs: A Reader, edited by Mark N. Katz (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly, forthcoming).

^4. Forrest D. Colburn, The Vogue of Revolution in Poor Countries (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994).

^5. Carlos Figueroa Ibarra, “Shipwreck and Survival: The Left in Central America,” Latin American Perspectives 24, no. 1 (Jan. 1997):114–29.

^6. Classic examples of expositions of the Soviet and Cuban export model of Latin American and Caribbean revolution include Mark Falcoff, “Struggle for Central America,” Problems of Communism 33, no. 2 (1984):63–66; Henry Kissinger, Report of the National Bipartisan Commission on Central America (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1984), p. 25; and Rift and Revolution: The Central American Imbroglio, edited by Howard Wiarda (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute, 1984). McClintock, in her book reviewed here, cites as examples Georges Fauriol, Latin American Insurgencies (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Center for Strategic and International Studies, 1985); Michael Radu and Vladimir Tismaneau, Latin American Revolutionaries (Washington, D.C.: Pergamon-Brassey, 1990); and William Ratliff, Castroism and Communism in Latin America, 1959–1976 (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute, 1976).

^7. Good recent overviews can be found in the McClintock book reviewed here (pp. 21–43) and in Jeff Goodwin, No Other Way Out: States and Revolutionary Movements, 1945–1991 (New York: Cambridge University Press, forthcoming). An attempt at an up-to-date précis is Eric Selbin, Modern Latin American Revolutions, 2d rev. ed. (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1999), 4–6. Two indispensable works are Rod Aya, “Theories of Revolution Reconsidered,” Theory and Society 8, no. 1 (1979):39–99; and Jack Goldstone, “Theories of Revolution: The Third Generation,” World Politics 23, no. 3 (1980):425–53. They have been nicely updated in John Foran, “Theories of Revolution Revisted: Toward a Fourth Generation,” Sociological Theory 11, no. 1 (1993):1–20; Theda Skocpol, “Reflections on Recent Scholarship about Social Revolutions and How to Study Them,” in Social Revolutions in the Modern World, edited by Theda Skocpol (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 301–44; and Timothy Wickham-Crowley, “Structural Theories of Revolution,” in Theorizing Revolutions, edited by John Foran (New York: Routledge, 1997), 38–72.

^8. Were one to try to codify an “age of revolution” for Africa, for example, the emphasis would almost certainly have to be on the era following World War II, perhaps beginning with the Mau-Mau rebellion in Kenya in 1952 and continuing through today (although a cut could be made with the negotiated settlement leading to the ANC triumph in South Africa). In Asia, a likely starting point seems to be China in 1910, probably ending with the victories of revolutionaries in Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam (although the ongoing situations in Sri Lanka and Indonesia merit note).

^9. For amplification on this topic, see Ariel Dorfman and Armand Mattleart, How to Read Donald Duck: Imperialism Ideology in the Disney Comic (Amsterdam: International General, 1971); or George Black, The Good Neighbor: How the United States Wrote the History of Central America and the Caribbean (New York: Pantheon, 1988). As for romanticization, note the scathing claim by Sánchez Lira and Villarreal that “many North American leftist intellectuals have a tendency to romanticize the violent social processes south of the border. It seems that, for them, we will always be curious and exotic subjects in need of redemption.” See Mongo Sánchez Lira and Rogelio Villarreal, “Mexico 1994: The Ruins of the Future,” in First World, Ha, Ha, Ha! The Zapatista Challenge, edited by Elaine Katzenberger, 223–34 (San Francisco, Calif.: City Lights, 1995).

^10. This trend can be dated from 1519, when on the island of Hispaniola native chieftain Enriquillo took up arms against his encomendero and the colonial authorities. See Daniel Castro, Guerrilla Warfare in Latin America (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1999), ii.

^11. The full name is the Partido Comunista Peruano-Sendero Luminoso (PCP-SL). Sendero Luminoso came from the subtitle of the party newspaper, “By the shining path of Comrade José Carlos Mariátegui.”

^12. Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolution: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia, and China (Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1979).

^13. A major work on Guzmán is now available in English: Gustavo Gorriti, The Shining Path: A History of the Millenarian War in Peru (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1999).

^14. A number are academics whose names will be familiar to readers of this journal. Others are political activists, popular opinion makers or critics, and some dissidents in Cuba.

^15. Jorge Castañeda, Utopia Unarmed: The Latin American Left after the Cold War (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1993).

^16. A rather different take on the reinvention of revolution in Mexico by some Mexican intellectuals is found in Zapatista! Reinventing Revolution in Mexico, edited by John Holloway and Eloína Peláez (London: Pluto, 1998).

^17. On the five-hundred-year struggle of the region's indigenous peoples, see Roger Chartier's worthy warning about “the chimera of origins” in The Cultural Origins of the French Revolution, translated by Lydia Cochrane (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1991), 4. The convention is to trace revolutionary and related processes from some key date, usually when power was seized, less commonly from the time when the armed or popular uprising became widespread or open.

^18. John Foran, “The Future of Revolutions at the Fin-de-siècle,” Third World Quarterly 18, no. 5 (1997):791–820, 804.

^19. According to Guillermo Gómez-Peña, Subcomandante Marcos's “persona was a carefully crafted collage of twentieth-century revolutionary symbols, costumes, and props borrowed from Zapata, Sandino, Che, and Arafat as well as from celluloid heroes such as Zorro and Mexico's movie wrestler, El Santo.” See Gómez-Peña, “The Subcomandante of Performance,” in Katzenberger, First World, 89–96. Marcos, it seems to me, owes as much to Groucho Marx as to Karl Marx, to John Lennon as to Vladimir Lenin.

^20. Anyone would have the bases covered after reading Harvey's The Chiapas Rebellion coupled with Thomas Benjamin's analysis of the state's elite, A Rich Land, a Poor People: Politics and Society in Modern Chiapas, rev. ed. (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1996); the early EZLN documents contained in Shadows of Tender Fury: The Letters and Communiqués of Subcomandante Marcos and the Zapatista Army of National Liberation, translated by Frank Bardacke and Leslie López (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1995); and the recent sweeping volume Rebellion in Chiapas: An Historical Reader, edited by John Womack (New York: New Press, 1999). Other excellent sources are the more descriptive accounts by John Ross, Rebellion from the Roots: Indian Uprising in Chiapas (Monroe, Me.: Common Courage, 1995); and Philip Russell, The Chiapas Rebellion (Austin, Tex.: Mexico Resource Center, 1995). One of the first and best works on Chiapas is the collaboration of an academic and a journalist, George Collier with Elizabeth Quaratiello, in Basta! Land and the Zapatista Rebellion in Chiapas (Oakland, Calif.: Food First, 1994).

^21. Others were interested in Chiapas considerably before the public advent of the EZLN. For examples, see Benjamin, A Rich Land; and Robert Wasserstrom, Class and Society in Chiapas (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1983).

^22. This issue remains contested among students of comparative revolution. For examples, see Timothy Wickham-Crowley, “Structural Theories of Revolution,” 38–72; and Eric Selbin, “Revolution in the Real World: Bringing Agency Back In,” 123–26, both in Foran's Theorizing Revolutions.

^23. Fifteen members, including ten national leaders, were interviewed for McCaughan's book.

^24. The name of El Barzón invokes the yoke, in reference (as I understand it) to a maxim from the revolutionary era, “The yoke is broken, but the ox goes on.”

^25. The Ejército Popular Revolucionario resulted from a merger of fourteen smaller groups. The most important one appears to be the armed wing of the early 1970s leftist group Party of the Poor (PROCUP), some of the region's only remaining focistas (Guevarists trying to emulate Che's foco-theory). An excellent introduction to the EPR can be found in Kathleen Bruhn, “Antonio Gramsci and the palabra verdadera: The Political Discourse of Mexico's Guerrilla Forces,” Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 41, no. 2 (1999):29–55. For a brief overview, see Georgina Gatsiopoulos, “The EPR: Mexico's ‘Other’ Guerrillas,” NACLA Report on the Americas 30, no. 4 (1997):33.

^26. This view is epitomized for Harvey by Carlos Tello's La rebelión de las Cañadas (Mexico City: Cal y Arena, 1995).

^27. But see Florencia Mallon's wonderful “The Promise and Dilemma of Subaltern Studies: Perspectives from Latin American History.” American Historical Review 99, no. 5 (1994):1491–1515.

^28. See his brilliant “I Dreamed of Foxes and Hawks: Reflections on Peasant Protest, New Social Movements, and the Rondas Campesinas in Northern Peru” in The Making of Social Movements in Latin America, edited by Arturo Escobar and Sonia Alvarez (Boulder: Westview, 1992), 89–111.

^29. See Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, “Rhizomes,” On the Line, translated by John Johnson (New York: Semiotext(e), 1983), 58.

^30. The use of culture in analyzing revolutions has been much debated. A representative sampling can be found in Foran, Theorizing Revolutions.