Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-lnqnp Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T02:20:17.291Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Is It Race, Class, or Gender? The Sources of Perceived Discrimination in Brazil

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 January 2018

Matthew L. Layton  and
Amy Erica Smith
Matthew L. Layton
Affiliation:
Ohio University. [email protected].
Amy Erica Smith
Affiliation:
Iowa State University. [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Observers have long noted Brazil's distinctive racial politics: the coexistence of relatively integrated race relations and a national ideology of “racial democracy” with deep social inequalities along color lines. Those defending a vision of a nonracist Brazil attribute such inequalities to mechanisms perpetuating class distinctions. This article examines how members of disadvantaged groups perceive their disadvantage and what determines self-reports of discriminatory experiences, using 2010 AmericasBarometer data. About a third of respondents reported experiencing discrimination. Consistent with Brazilian national myths, respondents were much more likely to report discrimination due to their class than to their race. Nonetheless, the respondent's skin color, as coded by the interviewer, was a strong determinant of reporting class as well as race and gender discrimination. Race is more strongly associated with perceived “class” discrimination than is household wealth, education, or region of residence; female gender intensifies the association between color and discrimination.

Type
Research
Information
Latin American Politics and Society , Volume 59 , Issue 1 , Spring 2017 , pp. 52 - 73
Copyright
Copyright © University of Miami 2017

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

AmericasBarometer. 2010. Brazilian Survey. Nashville: Latin American Public Opinion Project (LAPOP), Vanderbilt University.Google Scholar
George Reid, Andrews. 1992. Racial Inequality in Brazil and the United States: a Statistical Comparison. Journal of Social History 26, 2: 229–63.Google Scholar
George Reid, Andrews. 2014. Racial Inequality in Brazil and the United States, 1990–2010. Journal of Social History 47, 4: 829–54.Google Scholar
Bailey, Stanley R. 2002. The Race Construct and Public Opinion: Understanding Brazilian Beliefs about Racial Inequality and Their Determinants. American Journal of Sociology 108, 2: 406–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bailey, Stanley R. 2004. Group Dominance and the Myth of Racial Democracy: Antiracism Attitudes in Brazil. American Sociological Review 69, 5: 728–47.Google Scholar
Bailey, Stanley R. 2008. Unmixing for Race Making in Brazil. American Journal of Sociology 114, 3: 577–614.Google Scholar
Bailey, Stanley R., and Telles, Edward E.. 2006. Multiracial versus Collective Black Categories: Examining Census Classification Debates in Brazil. Ethnicities 6, 1: 74–101.Google Scholar
Bailey, Stanley R., Loveman, Mara, and Muniz, Jeronimo O.. 2013. Measures of “Race” and the Analysis of Racial Inequality in Brazil. Social Science Research 42, 1: 106–19.Google Scholar
Bastide, Roger, and Van Den Berghe, Pierre. 1957. Stereotypes, Norms, and Interracial Behavior in São Paulo, Brazil. American Sociological Review 22, 6: 689–94.Google Scholar
Bernardino-Costa, Joaze. 2014. Intersectionality and Female Domestic Workers' Unions in Brazil. Women's Studies International Forum 46 (September): 72–80.Google Scholar
Boas, Taylor C., and Erica Smith, Amy. 2016. Looks like Me, Thinks like Me? Descriptive Representation and Opinion Congruence in Brazil. Unpublsihed mss.Google Scholar
Branscombe, Nyla R., Schmitt, Michael T., and Harvey, Richard D.. 1999. Perceiving Pervasive Discrimination among African Americans: Implications for Group Identification and Well-Being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 77, 1: 135–49.Google Scholar
Brewer, Marilynn. 1999. The Psychology of Prejudice: Ingroup Love and Outgroup Hate? Journal of Social Issues 55, 3: 429–44.Google Scholar
Bueno, Natalia S., and Dunning, Thad. 2014. Race, Resources, and Representation: Evidence from Brazilian Politicians. SSRN Scholarly Paper ID 2498662. Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network.Google Scholar
Cacciamali, Maria Cristina, and Issamu Hirata, Guilherme. 2005. A influěncia da raça e do gěnero nas oportunidades de obtenção de renda—uma análise da discriminação em mercados de trabalho distintos: Bahia e São Paulo. Estudos Econômicos (São Paulo) 35, 4: 767–95.Google Scholar
Caldwell, Kia. 2007. Negras in Brazil: Re-Envisioning Black Women, Citizenship, and the Politics of Identity. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar
Chong, Dennis, and Kim, Dukhong. 2006. The Experiences and Effects of Economic Status among Racial and Ethnic Minorities. American Political Science Review 100, 3: 335–51.Google Scholar
Córdova, Abby. 2009. Methodological Note: Measuring Relative Wealth Using Household Asset Indicators. AmericasBarometer Insights. Nashville: Latin American Public Opinion Project, Vanderbilt University.Google Scholar
Córdova Abby, Abby, and Layton, Matthew L.. 2016. When Is “Delivering the Goods” Not Enough? How Economic Disparities in Latin American Neighborhoods Shape Citizen Trust in Local Government. World Politics 68, 1: 74–110.Google Scholar
Dávila, Jerry. 2014. Brazilian Race Relations in the Shadow of Apartheid. Radical History Review 119 (Spring): 122–45.Google Scholar
Degler, Carl N. 1971. Neither Black nor White: Slavery and Race Relations in Brazil and the United States. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Duckitt, John. 2003. Prejudice and Intergroup Hostility. In Oxford Handbook of Political Psychology, 1st ed., ed. Huddy, Leonie, Sears, David, and Jervis, Robert. New York: Oxford University Press. 559–600.Google Scholar
Fiske, Susan T. 1998. Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination. In The Handbook of Social Psychology, 4th ed., vols. 1 and 2, ed. Gilbert, D. T., Fiske, , and Lindzey, G.. New York: McGraw-Hill. 357–411.Google Scholar
Freyre, Gilberto. 1973 [1933]. Casa grande e senzala. Rio de Janeiro: Livraria José Olympio.Google Scholar
Fry, Peter. 1996. O que a Cinderela negra tem a dizer sobre a “política racial” no Brasil. Revista USP 28: 122–35.Google Scholar
García-Navarro, Lourdes. 2015. Expats Find Brazil's Reputation for Race-Blindness Is Undone by Reality. Radio broadcast. National Public Radio, May 22. http://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2015/05/22/408813624/expats-find-brazils-reputation-for-race-blindness-is-undone-by-reality. Accessed October 16, 2015.Google Scholar
Goldstein, Donna. 1999. “Interracial” Sex and Racial Democracy in Brazil: Twin Concepts? American Anthropologist, New Series, 101, 3: 563–78.Google Scholar
Gullickson, Aaron, and Torche, Florencia. 2014. Patterns of Racial and Educational Assortative Mating in Brazil. Demography 51, 3: 835–56.Google Scholar
Hanchard, Michael. 1994. Black Cinderella? Race and the Public Sphere in Brazil. Public Culture 7, 1: 165–85.Google Scholar
Hancock, Ange-Marie. 2007. When Multiplication Doesn't Equal Quick Addition: Examining Intersectionality as a Research Paradigm. Perspectives on Politics 5, 1: 63–79.Google Scholar
Heringer, Rosana. 2002. Desigualdades raciais no Brasil: síntese de indicadores e desafios no campo das políticas públicas. Caderno de Saúde Pública 18 (Supplement): 57–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hordge-Freeman, Elizabeth. 2013. What's Love Got to Do with It? Racial Features, Stigma, and Socialization in Afro-Brazilian Families. Ethnic and Racial Studies 36, 10: 1507–23.Google Scholar
Hordge-Freeman, Elizabeth. 2015. The Color of Love: Racial Features, Stigma, and Socialization in Black Brazilian Families. Austin: University of Texas Press.Google Scholar
Htun, Mala. 2002. Puzzles of Women's Rights in Brazil. Social Research 69, 3: 733–51.Google Scholar
Htun, Mala. 2015. Inclusion Without Representation in Latin America: Gender Quotas and Ethnic Reservations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hutchings, Vincent L., and Valentino, Nicholas A.. 2004. The Centrality of Race in American Politics. Annual Review of Political Science 7, 1: 383–408.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hutchings, Vincent L., Walton, Hanes, Mickey, Robert W., and Jardina, Ashley E.. 2011. The Politics of Race: How Threat Cues and Group Position Can Activate White Identity. Unpublished mss.Google Scholar
Jalalzai, Farida, and dos Santos, Pedro G.. 2015. The Dilma Effect? Women's Representation under Dilma Rousseff's Presidency. Politics & Gender 11, 1: 117–45.Google Scholar
Johnson, Brett G. 2015. Prejudice against Being Prejudiced: Racist Speech and the Specter of Seditious Libel in Brazil. Communication Law and Policy 20, 1: 55–89.Google Scholar
Johnson, Ollie A. Iii, and Heringer, Rosana. 2015. Race, Politics, and Education in Brazil: Affirmative Action in Higher Education. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Joseph, Tiffany D. 2013. How Does Racial Democracy Exist in Brazil? Perceptions from Brazilians in Governador Valadares, Minas Gerais. Ethnic and Racial Studies 36, 10: 1524–43.Google Scholar
Kamel, Ali. 2006. Não somos racistas: uma reação aos que querem nos transformar numa nação bicolor. Rio de Janeiro: Nova Fronteira.Google Scholar
Levitt, Barry S. 2015. Discrimination and the Distrust of Democratic Institutions in Latin America. Politics, Groups, and Identities 3, 3: 417–37.Google Scholar
Lima, Marcus Eugěnio O., Machado, Caliandra, Ávila, Josele, Lima, Carolina, and Vala, Jorge. 2006. Normas sociais e preconceito: o impacto da igualdade e da competição no preconceito automático contra os negros. Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica 19, 2: 309–19.Google Scholar
Lippmann, Walter. 1997 [1922]. Public Opinion. Reissue edition. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Lovell, Peggy A. 1994. Race, Gender, and Development in Brazil. Latin American Research Review 29, 3: 7.Google Scholar
Lovell, Peggy A. 2000. Race, Gender, and Regional Labor Market Inequalities in Brazil. Review of Social Economy 58, 3: 277–93.Google Scholar
Lovell, Peggy A. 2006. Race, Gender, and Work in São Paulo, Brazil, 1960–2000. Latin American Research Review 41, 3: 63–87.Google Scholar
Macinko, James, Mullachery, Pricila, Proietti, Fernando A., and Fernanda Lima-Costa, Maria. 2012. Who Experiences Discrimination in Brazil? Evidence from a Large Metropolitan Region. International Journal for Equity in Health 11, 1: 80.Google Scholar
Marcondes, Mariana Mazzini, Pinheiro, Luana, Queiroz, Cristina, Carolina Querino, Ana, and Valverde, Danielle. 2013. Dossiě mulheres negras: retrato das condições de vida das mulheres negras no Brasil. Brasília: Instituto de Pesquisa Econômica Aplicada.Google Scholar
Márquez García, Luana, Salardi, Paola, and Ñopo, Hugo R.. 2009. Gender and Racial Wage Gaps in Brazil, 1996–2006: Evidence Using a Matching Comparisons Approach. Washington, DC: Inter-American Development Bank.Google Scholar
McIntyre, Michael. 2002. The Coproduction of Race and Class in Brazil and the United States. Antipode 34, 2: 168–75.Google Scholar
McKenzie, David J. 2005. Measuring Inequality with Asset Indicators. Journal of Population Economics 18, 2: 229–60.Google Scholar
Miranda-Ribeiro, Paula. 2006. Somos racistas. Revista Brasileira de Estudos de População 23, 2: 375–77.Google Scholar
Mitchell, Gladys. 2009. The Politics of Skin Color in Brazil. Review of Black Political Economy 37, 1: 25–41.Google Scholar
Mitchell, Gladys. 2010. Racism and Brazilian Democracy: Two Sides of the Same Coin? Ethnic and Racial Studies 33, 10: 1776–96.Google Scholar
Mitchell-Walthour Gladys, Gladys, and William Darity, Darity. 2014. Choosing Blackness in Brazil's Racialized Democracy: the Endogeneity of Race in Salvador and São Paulo. Latin American and Caribbean Ethnic Studies 9, 3: 318–48.Google Scholar
Motta, Roberto. 2000. Paradigms in the Study of Race Relations in Brazil. International Sociology 15, 4: 665–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elisa Larkin, Nascimento. 2007. The Sorcery of Color: Identity, Race, and Gender in Brazil. Phildelphia: Temple University Press.Google Scholar
Nobles, Melissa. 2000. Shades of Citizenship: Race and the Census in Modern Politics. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Nolen, Stephanie. 2015a. Brazil's Colour Bind: How One of the World's Most Diverse Countries Is Just Starting to Talk about Race. Globe and Mail (Toronto), July 31. http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/brazils-colour-bind/article25779474. Accessed October 21, 2015.Google Scholar
Nolen, Stephanie. 2015b. Three Personal Stories that Show Brazil Is Not Completely beyond Racism. Globe and Mail (Toronto), July 31. http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/three-personal-stories-that-show-brazil-is-not-completely-beyond-racism/article25761242. Accessed October 21, 2015.Google Scholar
O'Dougherty, Maureen. 2002. Consumption Intensified: The Politics of Middle-Class Daily Life in Brazil. Durham: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Rafael Guerreiro, Osório. 2008. Is All Socioeconomic Inequality Among Racial Groups in Brazil Caused by Racial Discrimination? Working Paper 43. Brasília: International Policy Centre for Inclusive Growth, United Nations Development Programme.Google Scholar
Osuji, Chinyere. 2014. Divergence or Convergence in the U.S. and Brazil: Understanding Race Relations through White Family Reactions to Black-White Interracial Couples. Qualitative Sociology 37, 1: 93–115.Google Scholar
Peña Yesilernis, Yesilernis, Sidanius, Jim, and Sawyer, Mark. 2004. Racial Democracy in the Americas: a Latin and U.S. Comparison. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 35, 6: 749–62.Google Scholar
Amilcar Araujo, Pereira. 2013. O mundo negro: relações raciais e a constituição do movimento negro contemporâneo no Brasil. Rio de Janeiro: Pallas.Google Scholar
Perry, Keisha-Khan Y. 2013. Black Women Against the Land Grab: The Fight for Racial Justice in Brazil. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Racusen, Seth. 2002. “a Mulato Cannot Be Prejudiced”: the Legal Construction of Racial Discrimination in Contemporary Brazil. Ph.D. diss., Massachusetts Institute of Technology.Google Scholar
Reichmann, Rebecca L. 2010. Race in Contemporary Brazil: From Indifference to Inequality. University Park: Penn State University Press.Google Scholar
Reiter, Bernd, and Mitchell, Gladys L., eds. 2009. Brazil's New Racial Politics. Boulder: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar
Rezende, Cláudia Barcellos, and Lima, Márcia. 2004. Linking Gender, Class, and Race in Brazil. Social Identities 10, 6: 757–73.Google Scholar
Ribeiro, Carlos Antonio Costa. 2006. Classe, raça e mobilidade social no Brasil. Dados 49, 4: 833–73.Google Scholar
Rockquemore, Kerry, and Brunsma, David L.. 2002. Beyond Black: Biracial Identity in America. Thousand Oaks: Sage.Google Scholar
Sacco, Airi M., Clara Pinheiro, Maria Couto, P., and Koller, Silvia H.. 2016. Revisão sistemática de estudos da psicologia brasileira sobre preconceito racial. Temas em Psicologia 24, 1: 233–50.Google Scholar
Salardi, Paola. 2013. An Analysis of Pay and Occupational Differences by Gender and Race in Brazil, 1987 to 2006. Ph.D. diss., University of Sussex.Google Scholar
Sansone, Livio. 2003. Blackness Without Ethnicity: Constructing Race in Brazil. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Santos, José Alcides Figueiredo. 2005. Efeitos de classe na desigualdade racial no Brasil. Dados 48, 1: 21–65.Google Scholar
Luisa Farah, Schwartzman. 2007. Does Money Whiten? Intergenerational Changes in Racial Classification in Brazil. American Sociological Review 72, 6: 940–63.Google Scholar
Silva, Graziella Moraes da. 2012. Folk Conceptualizations of Racism and Antiracism in Brazil and South Africa. Ethnic and Racial Studies 35, 3: 506–22.Google Scholar
Silva, Graziella Moraes da, and Reis, Elisa P.. 2011. Perceptions of Racial Discrimination among Black Professionals in Rio De Janeiro. Latin American Research Review 46, 2: 55–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, Christen. 2014. For Cláudia Silva Ferreira: Death and the Collective Black Female Body. Feminist Wire, May 5. http://www.thefeministwire.com/2014/05/for-claudia-silva-ferreira-death-black-female-body Google Scholar
Tannenbaum, Frank. 2012 [1946]. Slave and Citizen. New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group.Google Scholar
Edward Eric, Telles. 2004. Race in Another America: The Significance of Skin Color in Brazil. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Edward Eric, Telles. 2007. Racial Discrimination and Miscegenation: the Experience in Brazil. UN Chronicle, September.Google Scholar
Edward Eric, Telles. 2014. Pigmentocracies: Ethnicity, Race, and Color in Latin America. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Telles, Edward, and Bailey, Stanley. 2013. Understanding Latin American Beliefs about Racial Inequality. American Journal of Sociology 118, 6: 1559–95.Google Scholar
Travassos, Claudia, Laguardia, Josué, Marques, Priscilla M., Mota, Jurema C., and Szwarcwald, Celia L.. 2011. Comparison between Two Race/Skin Color Classifications in Relation to Health-Related Outcomes in Brazil. International Journal for Equity in Health 10, 1: 35.Google Scholar
France Winddance, Twine. 1998. Racism in a Racial Democracy: The Maintenance of White Supremacy in Brazil. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar
Uhlmann, Eric, Dasgupta, Nilanjana, Elgueta, Angelica, Greenwald, Anthony G., and Swanson, Jane. 2002. Subgroup Prejudice Based on Skin Color among Hispanics in the United States and Latin America. Social Cognition 20, 3: 198–226.Google Scholar
Warren, Jonathan W. 2001. Racial Revolutions: Antiracism and Indian Resurgence in Brazil. Durham: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Layton and Smith supplementary material

Appendices

Download Layton and Smith supplementary material(File)
File 50.4 KB