Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-r5zm4 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-07T19:58:17.722Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Paleoecological Evidence of an Early Postclassic Occupation in the Southwestern Maya Lowlands: Laguna Las Pozas, Guatemala

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Kevin J. Johnston ,
Andrew J. Breckenridge  and
Barbara C. Hansen
Kevin J. Johnston
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, Ohio State University, 244 Lord Hall 124 W. 17th Ave., Columbus, OH 43210-1364
Andrew J. Breckenridge
Affiliation:
Large Lakes Observatory, 109 RLB, University of Minnesota at Duluth.10 University Drive, Duluth, MN 55812
Barbara C. Hansen
Affiliation:
Limnological Research Center, University of Minnesota, 220 Pillsbury Hall, Minneapolis, MN 55455-0219
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Magnetic, palynological, and paleoecological data indicate that in the Río de la Pasión drainage, one of the most thoroughly investigated areas of the southern Maya lowlands, a refugee population remained in the Laguna Las Pozas basin long after the Classic Maya collapse and the Terminal Classic period, previously identified by archaeologists as eras of near-total regional abandonment. During the Early Postclassic period, ca. A. D. 900 to 1200, agriculturalists colonized and deforested the Laguna Las Pozas basin for agriculture while adjacent, abandoned terrain was undergoing reforestation. After discussing the archaeological utility of magnetic analyses, we conclude that following the Maya collapse, some refugee populations migrated to geographically marginal non-degraded landscapes within the southern lowlands not previously occupied by the Classic Maya.

Los resultados de análisis magnéticos, palinológicos y paleoecológicos muestran que en el Valle del Río de la Pasión, una de las zonas más estudiadas de las Tierras Bajas del sur del área Maya, una población de refugiados permaneció en la cuenca de la Laguna Las Pozas hasta mucho después del colapso de la sociedad maya del Clásico y del periodo Clásico Terminal, hasta ahora considerados por los arqueólogos como periodos de Abandono casi total de la zona. Durante el Posclásico Temprano, c. 900-1200 d. C., la cuenca de la Laguna Las Pozas fue colonizada por campesinos y desforestada para el cultivo, mientras que el terreno abandonado adyacente experimentaba un proceso de reforestación. La aplicación paralela de técnicas de análisis magnéticos y palinológicos constituye una herramienta de investigación muy poderosa para el estudio de los cambios ambientales ecogénicos y antropogénicos. Los análisis magnéticos revelan tendencias de erosión y modificaciones del terreno local, mientras que los análisis de polen ayudan fundamentalmente a determinar los cambios en la vegetación a nivel regional. En este trabajo, tras una discusión sobre la utilidad arqueológica de los análisis magnéticos, llegamos a la conclusión de que después del colapso Maya, algunos grupos de refugiados emigraron a terrenos geográficamente marginales no degradados, dentro de los límites de las Tierras Bajas del sur (por ejemplo, a la cuenca de la Laguna Las Pozas), que no habían sido ocupados intensivamente por los mayas durante el periodo Clásico.

Type
Articles
Information
Latin American Antiquity , Volume 12 , Issue 2 , June 2001 , pp. 149 - 166
Copyright
Copyright © Society for American Archaeology 2000

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Abrams, Elliot M., Freter, AnnCorinne, Rue, David J., and Wingard, John D. 1996 The Role of Deforestation in the Collapse of the Late Classic Copan Maya State. In Tropical Deforestation: The Human Dimension, edited by Leslie Sponsel, Thomas Headland, and Robert Bailey, pp. 55–75. Columbia University Press, New York.Google Scholar
Abrams, Elliot M., and Rue, David J. 1988 The Causes and Consequences of Deforestation Among the Prehistoric Maya. Human Ecology 16(4):337–396.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adams, Richard E. W. 1971 The Ceramics of Altar de Sacrificios. Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, vol. 63, no. 1. Harvard University, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Adams, Richard E. W. 1973 Maya Collapse: Transformation and Termination in the Ceramic Sequence at Altar De Sacrificios. In The Classic Maya Collapse, edited by T. Patrick Culbert, pp. 133–164. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Adams, Richard E. W. 1999 Río Azul: An Ancient Maya City. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.Google Scholar
Andrews, V, Wyllys, E., and Sabloff, Jeremy A. 1986 Classic to Postclassie: A Summary Discussion. In Late Lowland Maya Civilization: Classic to Postclassie, edited by Jeremy A. Sabloff and E. Wyllys Andrews V, pp. 433–456. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Ashmore, Wendy 1981 Lowland Maya Settlement Patterns. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Balser, Richard A. 1995 Rock Magnetic Study of Environmental Changes in Neo-Tropical Lakes, from Early Holocene to the Present. Unpublished MS. Thesis, Department of Geology. University of Florida, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Banerjee, Subir K., King, John, and Marvin, James A. 1981 A Rapid Method for Magnetic Granulometry With Applications to Environmental Studies. Geophysical Research Letters 8:333–336.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Binford, Michael W., Deevey, Edward S., and Crisman, Thomas L. 1983 Paleolimnology: An Historical Perspective on Lacustrine Ecosystems. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 14:255–286.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bradley, Raymond S. 1999 Paleoclimatology: Reconstructing Climates of the Quaternary. Academic Press, San Diego.Google Scholar
Breckenridge, Andrew J. 2000 Using Paleolimnological Methods to Document Maya Landscape Alterations: Case Studies from the Río de la Pasión Valley, Petén, Guatemala. Unpublished MS thesis, Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.Google Scholar
Brenner, Mark 1994 Lakes Salpeten and Quexil, Petén, Guatemala, Central America. In Global Geological Record of Lake Basins, edited by Elizabeth H. Gierlowski-Kordesch and Kerry R. Kelts, pp. 377–380. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Brenner, Mark, Leyden, Barbara W., and Binford, Michael W. 1990 Recent Sedimentary Histories of Shallow Lakes in the Guatemalan Savannas. Journal of Paleolimnology 86:1–14.Google Scholar
Bronk Ramsey, Christopher 1994 Analysis of Chronological Information and Radiocarbon Calibration: The Program OxCal. Archaeological Computing Newsletter 41:11–16 Google Scholar
Bronk Ramsey, Christopher 1995 Radiocarbon Calibration and Analysis of Stratigraphy: The OxCal Program. Radiocarbon 37(2):425–430.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, Lillian 1958 Bring ‘Em Back Petrified. London: The Adventurers Club.Google Scholar
Carr, Robert E., and Hazard, James E. 1961 Map of the Ruins of Tikal, El Peten, Guatemala. Tikal Reports 11, University Museum Monograph, University Museum. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Chase, Arlen F. 1985 Postclassie Petén Interaction Sphere: The View from Tayasal. In The Lowland Maya Postclassie, edited by Arlen F. Chase and Prudence M. Rice, pp. 184–205. University of Texas Press, Austin.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chase, Diane Z. 1990 The Invisible Maya: Population History and Archaeology at Santa Rita Corozal. In Precolumbian Population History in the Maya Lowlands, edited by T. Patrick Culbert and Don S. Rice, pp. 149–166. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Chase, Arlen F., and Chase, Diane Z. 1980 Yucatec Influence in Terminal Classic Northern Belize. American Antiquity 47:596–614.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chase, Arlen F., and Chase, Diane Z. 1985 Postclassie Temporal and Spatial Frames for the Lowland Maya: A Background. In The Lowland Maya Postclassic, edited by Arlen F. Chase and Prudence Rice, pp. 9–22. University of Texas Press, Austin.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chase, Arlen F., and Chase, Diane Z. 1998 Scale and Intensity in Classic Period Maya Agriculture: Terracing and Settlement at the “Garden City” of Caracol, Belize. Culture and Agriculture 20(2/3):60–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chase, Arlen F., and Rice, Prudence M. 1985 Introduction. In The Lowland Maya Postclassic, edited by Arlen F. Chase and Prudence M. Rice, pp. 1–8. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Culbert, T. Patrick 1973 The Classic Maya Collapse. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.Google Scholar
Culbert, T. Patrick 1988 The Collapse Of Classic Maya Civilization. In The Collapse of Ancient States and Civilizations, edited by Norman Yoffee and George Cowgill, pp. 69–101. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Culbert, T. Patrick, Kosakowsky, Laura J., Fry, Robert E., and Haviland, William M. 1990 The Population of Tikal, Guatemala. In Precolumbian Population History in the Maya Lowlands, edited by T. Patrick Culbert and Don S. Rice, pp. 103–122. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Curtis, Jason H., Brenner, Mark, Hodell, David A., Balser, Richard A., Islebe, Gerald A., and Hooghiemstra, Henry 1998 A Multi-Proxy Study of Holocene Environmental Change in the Maya Lowlands of Petén, Guatemala. Journal of Paleolimnology 19:139–159.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Curtis, Jason H., Hodell, David A., and Brenner, Mark 1996 Climate Variability on the Yucatan Peninsula (Mexico) During the Past 3500 Years, and the Implications for Maya Cultural Evolution. Quaternary Research 46:37–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cushing, Edward J. 1993 Psidium. Pollen Stratigraphy In Diagrams Imaged Using Macintosh.Google Scholar
Cwynar, Les C., Burden, Elliot T., and McAndrews, John H. 1979 An Inexpensive Sieving Method for Concentrating Pollen and Spores from Fine- Grained Sediment. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 16:1115–1120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deevey, Edward S., and Struiver, Minze 1964 Distributions of Natural Isotopes of Carbon in Linsley Pond and Other New England Lakes. Limnology and Oceanography 9:1–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deevey, Edward S. Jr., Rice, Don S., Rice, Prudence M., Vaughan, Hague H., Brenner, Michael, and Flannery, Michael S. 1979 Mayan Urbanism: Impact on a Tropical Karst Environment. Science 206(19):298–306.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Demarest, Arthur A. 1997 The Vanderbilt Petexbatún Regional Archaeological Project 1989–1994: Overview, History, and Major Results of a Multidisciplinary Study of the Classic Maya Collapse. Ancient Mesoamerica 8(2):209–228.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunning, Nicholas, Rue, David J., Beach, Timothy, Covich, Alan, and Traverse, Alfred 1998 Human-Environment Interactions in a Tropical Watershed: The Paleoecology of Laguna Tamarandito, El Petén, Guatemala. Journal of Field Archaeology 25(2): 139–151.Google Scholar
Engleman, Edythe E., Jackson, Larry L., and Norton, Daniel R. 1985 Determination of Carbonate in Geological Materials by Coulometric Titration. Chemical Geology 53:125–128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Faegri, Knut, and Iversen, Johannes 1989 Textbook of Pollen Analysis. Hafner Press, New York.Google Scholar
Fedick, Scott L., and Ford, Anabel 1990 The Prehistoric Agricultural Landscape of the Central Maya Lowlands: An Examination of Local Variability in a Regional Context. World Archaeology 22(1):18–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fisher, Millard M., Brenner, Mark, and Ramesh Reddy, K. 1992 An Inexpensive Piston Corer for Collecting Undisturbed Sediment/Water Interface Profiles. Journal of Paleolimnology 7(2):157–161.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foias, Antonia E. 1996 Changing Ceramic Production and Exchange Systems and the Classic Maya Collapse in the Petexbatún Region. Ph.D. dissertation, Vanderbilt University. Ann Arbor: University Microfilms.Google Scholar
Ford, Anabel 1986 Population Growth and Social Complexity: An Examination of Settlement and Environment in the Central Maya Lowlands. Anthropological Research Paper No. 35. Arizona State University Press, Tempe.Google Scholar
Ford, Anabel, and Fedick, Scott L. 1992 Prehistoric Maya Settlement Patterns in the Upper Belize River Area: Initial Results of the Belize River Archaeological Settlement Survey. Journal of Field Archaeology 19:35–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fry, Robert E. 1990 Disjunctive Growth in the Maya Lowlands. In Pre-columbian Population History in the Maya lowlands, edited by T. Patrick Culbert and Don S. Rice, pp. 285–301. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Gill, Richardson B. 2000 The Great Maya Droughts. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Guderjan, Thomas H., and Garber, James F. 1995 Maya Maritime Trade, Settlement, and Populations on Ambergris Caye, Belize. Labyrinthos, Lancaster, CA.Google Scholar
Hammond, Norman 1974 Preclassic To Postclassic In Northern Belize. Antiquity 48:177–180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hansen, Barbara C. 1990 Pollen Stratigraphy of Laguna De Cocos. In Ancient Maya Wetland Agriculture: Excavations on Albion Island, Northern Belize, edited by Mary Pohl, pp. 155–186. Westview Press, Boulder. Google Scholar
Hodell, David A., Curtis, Jason H., and Brenner, Mark 1995 Possible Role of Climate in the Collapse of Classic Maya Civilization. Nature 375:391–394.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Islebe, Gerald A., Hooghiemstra, Henry, Brenner, Mark, Curtis, Jason H., and Hodell, David A. 1996 A Holocene Vegetation History from Lowland Guatemala. The Holocene 6(3):265–271.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnston, Kevin J. 1994 The “Invisible” Maya: Late Classic Minimally-Platformed Residential Settlement at Itzán, Petén, Guatemala. Ph.D. dissertation, Yale University. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Johnston, Kevin J., and Breckenridge, Andrew J. 1999 Proyecto de Paleoecología Maya: Reconstructión de Patrones de Utilizatión del Terreno y Deforestatión en el Periodo Clasico. In XII Simposio de investigaciones arqueológicos en Guatemala, edited by Juan P. Laporte, Hector Escobedo, and Ana Claudia Monsón de Suasnávar, pp. 235–248. Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, Guatemala City.Google Scholar
Jones, John G. 1994 Pollen Evidence for Early Settlement and Agriculture in Northern Belize. Palynology 18:205–211.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
King, John, Banerjee, Subir K., Marvin, James A., and Ozdemir, Ozden 1982 A Comparison of Different Magnetic Methods for Determining Grain Size of Magnetite in Natural Materials: Some Results from Lake Sediments. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 59:404–419.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
King, John, and Hunt, Christopher P. 1991 Laboratory Techniques and Equipment for Rock Magnetism and Paleomagnetism. In Handbook from the Environmental Magnetism Workshop, edited by Christopher P. Hunt. Institute for Rock Magnetism and the Global Paleorecords Research Training Group, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.Google Scholar
Leyden, Barbara W. 1984 Guatemalan Forest Synthesis After Pleistocene Aridity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 81:4856–4859.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leyden, Barbara W. 1987 Man and Climate in the Maya Lowlands. Quaternary Research 28:407–414.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leyden, Barbara W., Brenner, Mark, and Dahlin, Bruce H. 1998 Cultural and Climatic History of Coba, a Lowland Maya City in Quintana Roo, Mexico. Quaternary Research 49:111–122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leyden, Barbara W., Brenner, Mark, Hodell, David A., and Curtis, Jason H. 1993 Late Pleistocene Climate in the Central American Lowlands. In Climate Change in Continental Isotopic Records, edited by Peter K. Swart, Kyger C. Lohmann, Judith A. McKenzie, and S. Savin, pp. 165–178. American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
MacDonald, Glen M., Larsen, Christopher P., Szeicz, Julian M., and Moser, Katrina A. 1991 The Reconstruction of Boreal Forest Fire History from Lake Sediments: A Comparison of Charcoal, Pollen, Sedimentological, and Geochemical Indices. Quaternary Science Reviews 10:53–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin, Simon, and Grübe, Nicholai 2000 Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens. Thames and Hudson, London.Google Scholar
Masson, Marilyn A. 1999 Postclassic Maya Communities at Progresso Lagoon and Laguna Seca, Northern Belize. Journal of Field Archaeology 26(3):285–306.Google Scholar
Moskowitz, Bruce M., Frankel, Richard B., and Bazylinski, Dennis A. 1993 Rock Magnetic Criteria for the Detection of Biogenic Magnetite. Earth and Planetary Sciences Letters 120:283–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Palka, Joel W. 1997 Reconstructing Classic Maya Socioeconomic Differentiation and the Collapse at Dos Pilas, Petén, Guatemala. Ancient Mesoamerica 8(2):293–306.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pendergast, David M. 1986 Stability Through Change: Lamanai, Belize, from the Ninth to the Seventeenth Century. In Late Lowland Maya Civilization: Classic to Postclassic, edited by Jeremy A. Sabloff and E. Wyllys Andrews V, pp. 223–250. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Pohl, Mary D., Pope, Kevin O., Jones, John G., Jacob, John S., Piperno, Dolores R., deFrance, Susan D., Lentz, David H., Gifford, John H., Danforth, Marie E., and Kathryn Josserand, J. 1996 Early Agriculture in the Maya Lowlands. Latin American Antiquity 7(4):355–372.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Puleston, Dennis E. 1974 Intersite Areas in the Vicinity of Tikal and Uaxactun. In Mesoamerican Archaeology: New Approaches, edited by Norman Hammond, pp 303–312. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Puleston, Dennis E. 1983 The Settlement Survey of Tikal. Tikal Reports no 13, University Museum Monograph 48. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rice, Don S. 1986 The Peten Postclassic: A Settlement Perspective. In Late Lowland Maya Civilizations: Classic to Postclassic, edited by Jeremy A. Sabloff and E. Wyllys Andrews, pp. 301–344. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Rice, Don S. 1993 Eighth-Century Physical Geography, Environment, and Natural Resources in the Maya Lowlands. In Lowland Maya Civilization in the Eighth Century A.D., edited by Jeremy A. Sabloff and John Henderson, pp. 11–64. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Rice, Don S., and Patrick Culbert, T. 1990 Historical Contexts for Population Reconstruction in the Maya Lowlands. In Precolumbian Population History in the Maya Lowlands, edited by T. Patrick Culbert and Don S. Rice, pp. 1–36. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Rice, Don S., and Rice, Prudence M. 1990 Population Size and Population Change in the Central Peten Lakes Region, Guatemala. In Precolumbian Population History in the Maya Lowlands, edited by T. Patrick Culbert and Don S. Rice, pp. 123–148. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Rice, Don S., Rice, Prudence M., and Deevey, Edward S. Jr. 1985 Paradise Lost: Classic Maya Impact on a Lacustrine Environment. In Prehistoric Lowland Maya Environment and Subsistence Economy, edited by Mary Pohl, pp. 91–105. Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, vol. 77. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
Rice, Prudence M. 1986 The Petén Postclassic: Perspectives from the Central Petén lakes. In Late Lowland Maya Civilization: Classic to Postclassic, edited by Jeremy A. Sabloff and E. Wyllys Andrews V, pp. 251–300. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Rice, Prudence M., and Rice, Don S. 1985 Topoxte, Macanche, and the Central Peten Postclassic. In The Lowland Maya Postclassic, edited by Arlen F. Chase and Prudence Rice, pp. 166–183. University of Texas Press, Austin.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ricketson, Oliver G., and Ricketson, Edith B. 1937 Uaxactun, Guatemala: Group E—1926–1931. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Pub. 477. Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Sabloff, Jeremy A. 1973 Continuity and Disruption During Terminal Late Classic Times at Seibal: Ceramic and Other Evidence. In The Classic Maya Collapse, edited by T. Patrick Culbert, pp. 107–132. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Sabloff, Jeremy A. 1977 Old Myths, New Myths: The Role of the Sea Traders in the Development of Ancient Maya Civilization. In The Seas and Pre-Columbian World, edited by Elizabeth P. Benson, pp. 67–94. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Sabloff, Jeremy A., and Willey, Gordon R. 1967 The Collapse of Maya Civilization in the Southern Lowlands: A Consideration of History and Process. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 23(4):311–336.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sanders, William T. 1973 The Cultural Ecology of the Lowland Maya: A Reevaluation. In The Classic Maya Collapse, edited by T. Patrick Culbert, pp. 325–365. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Sanders, William T, and Webster, David 1994 Preindustrial Man and Environmental Degradation. In Biodiversity and Landscapes: A Paradox of Humanity, edited by Ke Chung Kim and Robert Weaver, pp. 77–104. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Santley, Robert S., Killion, Thomas W., and Lycett, Mark T. 1986 On the Maya Collapse. Journal of Anthropological Research 42(2): 123–159.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sharer, Robert J. 1994 The Ancient Maya. Stanford University Press, Stanford.Google Scholar
Thompson, Roy, and Oldfield, Frank 1986 Environmental Magnetism. Allen & Unwin, London.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tsukada, Matsao 1966 The Pollen Sequence. In The History of Laguna Petenxil: A Small Lake in Northern Guatemala, edited by Ursula M. Cowgill and G. Evelyn Hutchinson. Memoirs of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences 17:63–66.Google Scholar
Turner, Billie Lee II 1989 The Rise and Fall of Population and Agriculture in the Central Maya Lowlands: 300 BC to Present. In Hunger in History: Food Shortage, Poverty, and Deprivation, edited by Lucile F. Newman, pp. 178–211. Basil Blackwell, Oxford.Google Scholar
Turner, Billie Lee II 1990 Population Reconstruction for the Central Maya Lowlands: 1000 B.C. to A.D. 1500. In Precolumbian Population History in the Maya Lowlands, edited by T. Patrick Culbert and Don S. Rice, pp. 301–324. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Vaughan, Hague H., Deevey, Edward S. Jr., and Garrett-Jones, S. E. 1985 Pollen Stratigraphy of Two Cores from the Peten Lake District, With an Appendix on Two Deep-Water Cores. In Prehistoric Lowland Maya Environment and Subsistence Economy, edited by Mary Pohl, pp. 73–89. Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, vol. 77. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
Wauchope, Robert 1934 House Mounds of Uaxactun, Guatemala. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Publication 436, Contribution 7. Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Webster, David L. 1998 Warfare and Status Rivalry: Lowland Maya and Polynesian Comparisons. In Archaic States, edited by Gary M. Feinman and Joyce Marcus, pp. 311–352. School of American Research Press, Santa Fe.Google Scholar
Webster, David L. 1999 The Archaeology of Copan, Honduras. Journal of Archaeological Research 7(1): 1–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Webster, David L., and Freter, AnnCorinne 1990 The Demography of Late Classic Copan. In Pre-columbian Population History in the Maya Lowlands, edited by T. Patrick Culbert and Don S. Rice, pp. 37–62. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Webster, David L., Gonlin, Nancy, and Freter, AnnCorinne 2000 Copan: The Rise and Fall of an Ancient Maya Kingdom. Harcourt College Publishers, Fort Worth.Google Scholar
Webster, David L., Sanders, William T., and van Rossum, Peter 1992 A Simulation of Copan Population History and its Implications. Ancient Mesoamerica 3(1):185–198.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weyl, Richard 1980 Geology of Central America. Gebuder Borntraeger, Berlin.Google Scholar
Whitmore, Thomas M., Turner, B. L. II, Johnson, Douglas L., Kates, Robert W, and Gottschange, Thomas R. 1990 Long-Term Population Change. In The Earth as Transformed by Human Action, edited by B. L. Turner II, et al., pp. 25–39. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Whitmore, Thomas J., Brenner, Mark, Curtis, Jason H., Dahlin, Bruce H., and Leyden, Barbara W 1996 Holocene Climatic and Human Influences on Lakes of the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico: An Interdisciplinary Paleolimnological Approach. Holocene 6(3):273–287.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Willey, Gordon R. 1973 The Altar de Sacrificios Excavations: General Summary and Conclusions. Papers of the Peabody Museum, vol. 64, no. 3. Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
Willey, Gordon R. 1986 The Postclassic in the Maya lowlands: A Preliminary Overview. In Late Lowland Maya Civilization: Classic to Postclassic, edited by Jeremy A. Sabloff and E. Wyllys Andrews V, pp. 17–52. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Willey, Gordon R. 1990 General Summary and Conclusions. In Excavations at Seibal, Department of Peten, Guatemala. Memoirs of the Peabody Museum, vol. 17, no. 4. Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
Willey, Gordon R., Bullard, William R., Glass, John B., and Gifford, James C. 1965 Prehistoric Maya Settlement in the Belize Valley. Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, vol. 54. Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
Willey, Gordon R., Ledyard Smith, A., Tourtellot, Gair, and Graham, Ian 1975 Excavations at Seibal, Department of Peten, Guatemala. Introduction: The Site and its Setting. Memoirs of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, vol. 13. Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
Willey, Gordon R., and Shimkin, Demitri B. 1973 The Maya Collapse: A Summary View. In The Classic Maya Collapse, edited by T. Patrick Culbert, pp. 457–502. School of American Research Press, Santa Fe.Google Scholar
Wingard, John D. 1996 Interactions Between Demographic Processes and Soil Resources in the Copan Valley, Honduras. In The Managed Mosaic: Ancient Maya Agriculture and Resource Use, edited by Scott L. Fedick, pp. 207–235. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Wright, Herbert E. Jr., Mann, Daniel H., and Glaser, Paul H. 1984 Piston Corers for Peat and Lake Sediments. Ecology 65(2):657–659.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yoffee, Norman 1988 Orienting Collapse. In The Collapse of Ancient States and Civilizations, edited by Norman Yoffee and George Cowgill, pp. 1–19. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar