Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t7czq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-24T23:43:29.592Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

“Let’s Drink Together”: Early Ceremonial use of Maize in the Titicaca Basin

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Amanda L. Logan ,
Christine A. Hastorf  and
Deborah M. Pearsall
Amanda L. Logan
Affiliation:
Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, 1109 Geddes Ave., Ann Arbor, MI, USA 48109, [email protected]
Christine A. Hastorf
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley, 232 Kroeber Hall, Berkeley, CA, USA 94720, [email protected]
Deborah M. Pearsall
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, University of Missouri, Columbia, 107 Swallow Hall, Columbia, MO, USA 65211, [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Since the Formative times, maize is and has been a highly valued social commodity in the Andes, particularly in the form of a traditional beer called chicha. While chicha production is well attested in the archaeology and ethnohistory of Andean states, the emergence of maize symbolism in earlier societies has not been systematically addressed. In this study phytolith and starch grain analyses are used to trace production, processing, and consumption of maize at sites on the Taraco Peninsula of Bolivia and thus the entrance of maize into the region. We systematically examine the role of maize by addressing its rarity, use contexts, and preparation. The pattern of plant part representation and use suggest that maize was being consumed in the form of chicha at its earliest introduction to the Titicaca Basin (800–250 B.C.). Drinking of alcohol in ceremonial spaces embodies the process of commensality of public ceremony and the establishment of reciprocal relationships during the Formative period. These results demonstrate that contextual analysis of microbotanical remains has great potential to answer anthropological questions surrounding food, ritual, and identity.

El maíz ha sido y sigue siendo un producto altamente valorado en los Andes, particularmente en la forma tradicional de cerveza conocida como chicha. Aunque la producción de chicha está bien documentada en la arqueología y la etnohistoria de los estados andinos, la emergencia de un simbolismo relacionado al maíz en las sociedades anteriores no ha sido sistemáticamente investigada. En el presente estudio, los análisis de fitolitos y gránulos de almidón son utilizados para entender la producción, el procesamiento y el consumo del maíz en los sitios bolivianos de la Península de Taraco. El rol del maíz es examinado sistemáticamente a través de su rareza, sus contextos de uso y su preparación. En los contextos arqueológicos, la representación y el uso de las diferentes partes de la planta sugieren que el maíz ha sido consumido en forma de chicha desde su introducción en la cuenca del Titicaca (800–250 a.C.). El consumo de alcohol en espacios ceremoniales representa el proceso de formalización de las ceremonias públicas y el establecimiento de relaciones sociales recíprocas durante el período Formativo. Estos resultados demuestran que el análisis contextual de los restos microbotánicos tiene un gran potencial para responder a las interrogantes antropológicas acerca de la comida, los ritos y la identidad.

Type
Articles
Information
Latin American Antiquity , Volume 23 , Issue 3 , September 2012 , pp. 235 - 258
Copyright
Copyright © 2012 by the Society for American Archaeology.

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Abbott, Mark B., Binford, Michael W., Brenner, Mark, and Kelts, Kerry R. 1997 A 3500 14C yr High-Resolution Record of Water Level Changes in Lake Titicaca, Bolivia/Peru. Quaternary Research 47:169–180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Albarracin-Jordan, Juan 1996 Tiwanaku Settlement System: The Integration of Nested Hierarchies in The Lower Tiwanaku Valley. Latin American Antiquity 7:183–210.Google Scholar
Allen, Catherine J. 1988 The Hold Life Has: Coca and Cultural Identity in an Andean Community. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Allen, Catherine J. 2009 “Let’s Drink Together, My Dear!”: Persistent Ceremonies in a Changing Community. In Drink and Power in the Andes, edited by Justin Jennings and Brenda Bowser, pp. 28–48. University of Florida Press, Gainesville.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, Karen 2009 Tiwanaku Influence on Local Drinking Patterns in Cochabamba, Bolivia. In Drink and Power in the Andes, edited by Justin Jennings and Brenda Bowser, pp. 167–199. University of Florida Press, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Arnold, Denise Y., and Hastorf, Christine A. 2008 Heads of State: Icons, Power, an Politics in the Ancient and Modern Andes. Left Coast Press, Walnut Creek, California.Google Scholar
Bandy, Matthew S. 2001 Population and History in the Ancient Titicaca Basin. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Bandy, Matthew S. 2004 Fissioning, Scalar Stress, and Social Evolution in Early Village Societies. American Anthropologist 106:322–333.Google Scholar
Bandy, Matthew S. 2005 Trade and Social Power in the Southern Lake Titicaca Basin Formative. Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association 14:91–111.Google Scholar
Bandy, Matthew S. 2006 Early Village Society in the Formative Period in the Southern Lake Titicaca B asin. In Andean Archaeology III: North and South, edited by William Isbell and Helaine Silverman, pp. 210–227. Springer, New York.Google Scholar
Bandy, Matthew S. 2007 Kala Uyuni and the Titicaca Basin Formative. In Kala Uyuni: An Early Political Center in the Southern Lake Titicaca Basin: 2003 Excavations of the Taraco Archaeological Project, edited by Matthew S. Bandy and Christine A. Hastorf, pp. 135–143. Contributions of the Archaeological Research Facility No. 64. University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Bandy, Matthew S., and Hastorf, Christine A. (editors) 2007 Kala Uyuni: An Early Political Center in the Southern Lake Titicaca Basin: 2003 Excavations of the Taraco Archaeological Project. Contributions of the Archaeological Research Facility No. 64. University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Bandy, Matthew, Hastorf, Christine, Steadman, Lee, Moore, Katherine, Goodman-Elgar, Melissa, Whitehead, William, Soria, José Luis Paz, Cohen, Amanda, Bruno, Maria, Roddick, Andrew, Frye, Kirk, Soledad Fernández, M., Flores, José Capriles, and Leighton, Mary 2004 Taraco Archaeological Project: Report on 2003 Excavations at Kala Uyni. Report submitted to the Unidad Nacional de Arqueología de Bolivia, La Paz.Google Scholar
Beck, Robin A. Jr. 2004 Architecture and Polity in the Formative Lake Titicaca Basin, Bolivia. Latin American Antiquity 15:323–343.Google Scholar
Bennett, Wendell C. 1936 Excavations in Bolivia. American Museum of Natural History Anthropological Papers 35(4):329–504.Google Scholar
Binford, Michael, Brenner, Mark, and Leyden, Barbara 1996 In Agroecology, edited by Alan Kolata, pp. 90–108. Tiwanaku and its Hinterland: Archaeology and Paleoecology of an Andean Civilization, Vol. 1. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Bolin, Inge 1998 Rituals of Respect: The Secret of Survival in the High Peruvian Andes. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Bozarth, Steven 1993 Maize (Zea mays) Cob Phytoliths from a Central Kansas Great Bend Aspect Archaeological Site. Plains Anthropologist 38:279–286.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bozarth, Steven 1996 Pollen and Opal Phytolith Evidence of Prehistoric Agriculture and Wild Plant Utilization in the Lower Verde River Valley, Arizona. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Kansas, Lawrence.Google Scholar
Bray, Tamara L. 2003 To Dine Splendidly: Imperial Pottery, Commensal Politics, and the Inca State. In The Archaeology of Food and Feasting in Early States and Empires, edited by Tamara L. Bray, pp.93–142. Kluwer Academic/Plenum, New York.Google Scholar
Bray, Tamara L. 2009 The Role of Chicha in Inca State Expansion: A Distributional Study of Inca Aríbalos. In Drink, Power, and Society in the Andes, edited by Justin Jennings and Brenda Bowser, pp. 108–132. University of Florida Press, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Browman, David 1978a The Temple of Chiripa (Lake Titicaca, Bolivia). In III Congreso Peruano “El Hombre y La Cultura Andina,” Vol. 2, edited by Ramiro Matos, pp.807–813. Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima.Google Scholar
Browman, David 1978b Toward the Development of the Tiahuanaco (Tiwanaku) State. In Advances in Andean Archaeology, edited by David Browman, pp. 327–349. Mouton Publishers, The Hague, Paris.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Browman, David 1986 Chenopod Cultivation, Lacustrine Resources, and Fuel Use at Chiripa, Bolivia. The Missouri Archaeologist 17:137–172.Google Scholar
Bruno, Maria C. 2008 Waranq Waranqa: Ethnobotanical Perspectives on Agricultural Intensification in the Lake Titicaca Basin (Taraco Peninsula, Bolivia). Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Washington University in St. Louis.Google Scholar
Bruno, Maria C., and Whitehead, William T. 2003 Chenopodium Cultivation and Formative Period Agriculture at Chiripa, Bolivia. Latin American Antiquity 14:339–355.Google Scholar
Burger, Richard, and van der Merwe, Nicholas 1990 Maize and the Origin of Highland Chavín Civilization: An Isotopic Perspective. American Anthropologist 92:85–95.Google Scholar
Chávez, Karen L. M. 1988 The Significance of Chiripa in Lake Titicaca Basin Developments. Expedition 30(3): 17–26.Google Scholar
Chávez, Sergio J. 2002 Identification of the Camelid Woman and Feline Man Themes, Motifs, and Designs in Pucara Style Pottery. In Andean Archaeology II: Art, Landscape and Society, edited by Helaine Silverman and William H. Isbell, pp. 35–69. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chávez, Sergio J. 2006 Native Aymara and Quechua Botanical Terminologies of Zea mays in the Lake Titicaca and Cuzco Regions. In Histories of Maize: Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Prehistory, Linguistics, Biogeography, Domestication,and Evolution of Maize, edited by John E. Staller, Robert H. Tykot, and Bruce F. Benz, pp. 623–629. Academic Press. San Diego.Google Scholar
Chávez, Sergio J., and Thompson, Robert G. 2006 Early Maize on the Copacabana Peninsula: Implications for the Archaeology of the Lake Titicaca Basin. In Histories of Maize: Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Prehistory, Linguistics, Biogeography, Domestication, and Evolution of Maize, edited by John E. Staller, Robert H. Tykot, and Bruce F. Benz, pp. 415–428. Academic Press, San Diego.Google Scholar
Cobo, Bernabé 1979 History of the Inca Empire: An Account of the Indians’ Customs and Their Origin, Together with a Treatise on Inca Legends, History, and Social Institutions, translated and edited by Roland Hamilton. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Cohen, Amanda B., and Roddick, Andrew 2007 Excavations in the AC (Achachi Coa Kkollu) Sector. In Kala Uyuni: An Early Political Center in the Southern Lake Titicaca Basin: 2003 Excavations of the Taraco Archaeological Project, edited by Matthew Bandy and Christine Hastorf,pp. 41–66. Contributions of the Archaeological Research Facility No. 64. University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Costin, Cathy, and Earle, Timothy 1989 Status Distinction and Legitimation of Power as Reflected in the Changing Patterns of Occupation in Late Prehispanic Peru. American Antiquity 54:691–714.Google Scholar
Cummins, Thomas B. F. 2002 Toasts with the Inca: Andean Abstraction and Colonial Images on Quero Vessels. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Cutler, Hugh C., and Cárdenas, Martin 1947 Chicha, a Native South American Beer. Harvard University Botanical Museum Leaflet 13(3): 33–60.Google Scholar
Dean, Emily, and Kojan, David 1999 Santiago. In Early Settlement at Chiripa, Bolivia: Research of the Taraco Archaeological Project, edited by Christine A. Hastorf, pp. 37–42. Contributions of the Archaeological Research Facility Number 57, University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Dietler, Michael 2006 Alcohol: Anthropological/Archaeological Perspectives. Annual Review of Anthropology 35:229–249.Google Scholar
Dillehay, Thomas D., and Lautaro Nún_ez A. 1988 Camelids, Caravans, and Complex Societies in the South-Central Andes. In Recent Studies in Pre-Columbian Archaeology, edited by Nicholas J. Saunders and Olivier de Montmollin, pp. 603–634. BAR International Series 421(ii). British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Erickson, Clark L. 1999 Neo-Environmental Determinism and Agrarian “Collapse” in Andean Prehistory. Antiquity 73:634–642.Google Scholar
Erickson, Clark L. 2000 The Lake Titicaca Basin: A Precolumbian Built Landscape. In Imperfect Balance: Landscape Transformations in the Precolumbian Americas, edited by David L. Lentz, pp. 311–356. Columbia University Press, New York.Google Scholar
Eubanks, Mary 1999 Corn in Clay: Maize Paleoethnobotany in Pre-Columbian Art. University of Florida Press, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Finucane, Brian, Agurto, Patricia Maita, and Isbell, William H. 2006 Human and Animal Diet at Conchopata, Peru: Stable Isotope Evidence for Maize Agricultural and Animal Management Practices during the Middle Horizon. Journal of Archaeological Science 33:1766–1776.Google Scholar
Gero, Joan 1990 Pottery, Power, and Parties! At Queyash, Peru. Archaeology Magazine (March-April):52–55.Google Scholar
Goette, Susan, Williams, Michelle, Johannessen, Sissel, and Hastorf, Christine A. 1994 Toward Reconstructing Ancient Maize: Experiments in Processing and Charring. Journal of Ethnobiology 14:1–21.Google Scholar
Goldstein, David J. 2003 From Stew-Eaters to Maize-Drinkers: The Chicha Economy and Tiwanaku Expansion. In The Archaeology and Politics of Food and Feasting in Early States, edited by Tamara Bray, pp. 143–172. Kluwer Academic, New York.Google Scholar
Goldstein, David J., Coleman Goldstein, Robin C., and Williams, Patrick R. 2009 You Are What You Drink: A Sociocultural Reconstruction of Pre-Hispanic Fermented Beverage Use at Cerro Baúl, Moquegua, Peru. In Drink and Power in the Andes, edited by Justin Jennings and Brenda Bowser, pp. 133–166. University of Florida Press, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Gumerman, George IV 1994 Corn for the Dead: The Significance of Zea mays in Moche Burial Offerings. In Corn and Culture in the Prehistoric New World, edited by Sissel Johannessen and Christine A. Hastorf, pp. 399–410. Westview Press, Boulder.Google Scholar
Hart, John P., Thompson, Robert G., and Brumbach, Hetty Jo 2003 Phytolith Evidence for Early Maize (Zea mays) in the Northern Finger Lakes Region of New York. American Antiquity 68:619–640.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hastorf, Christine A. 1988 The Use of Paleoethnobotanical Data in Prehistoric Studies of Crop Production, Processing,and Consumption. In Current Paleoethnobotany: Analytical Methods and Cultural Interpretations of Archaeological Plant Remains, edited by Christine A. Hastorf and Virginia S. Popper, pp. 119–144. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Hastorf, Christine A. 1991 Gender, Space, and Food in Prehistory. In Engendering Archaeology: Women in Prehistory, edited by Joan M. Gero and Margaret W. Conkey, pp. 132–159. Basil Black-well, Oxford.Google Scholar
Hastorf, Christine A. 1993 Agriculture and the Onset of Political Inequality before the Inca. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Hastorf, Christine A. 1998 The Cultural Life of Early Domestic Plant Use. Antiquity 72:773–82.Google Scholar
Hastorf, Christine A. 1999 Cultural Implications of Crop Introductions in Andean Prehistory. In The Prehistory of Food: Appetites for Change, edited by Chris Gosden and Jon Hather, pp.35–58. Routledge, London.Google Scholar
Hastorf, Christine A. 2003a Community with the Ancestors: Ceremonies and Social Memory in the Middle Formative at Chiripa, Bolivia. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 22:305–332.Google Scholar
Hastorf, Christine A. 2003b Andean Luxury Foods: Special Food for Ancestors, Deities, and Elite. Antiquity 77:545–554.Google Scholar
Hastorf, Christine A. 2008 The Formative Period in the Titicaca Basin. In Handbook of South American Archaeology, edited by Helaine Silverman and William Isbell, pp. 545–561. Springer, New York.Google Scholar
Hastorf, Christine A. (editor) 1999 Early Settlement at Chiripa, Bolivia: Research of the Taraco Archaeological Project. Contributions of the Archaeological Research Facility No. 57, University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Hastorf, Christine, Bandy, Matthew, Whitehead, William, Steadman, Lee, Moore, Katherine, Soria, José Luis Paz, Roddick, Andrew, Bruno, Maria, Fernández, Soledad, Kil-lackey, Kathryn, Logan, Amanda, Ullua, Delfour, Callisaya, Luis, Flores, José Capriles, Stovel, Emily, Rooth, Annie, and Antonites, Alexander 2005 Taraco Archaeological Project: Report on 2004 Excavations at Kumi Kipa and Sonaje. Report submitted to Directorate Unidad Nacional de Arqueología de Bolivia, La Paz.Google Scholar
Hastorf, Christine, Bandy, Matthew, Whitehead, William, Steadman, Lee, Moore, Katherine, Elgar, Melissa Goodman, Roddick, Andrew, Bruno, Maria, Fernández, Soledad, Killackey, Kathryn, Fontenla, Ruth, Callisaya, Luis, Flores, José Capriles, Leighton, Mary, Machicado, Eduardo, Peterson, Marcia, Anthony, Nicole, and Jiménez, Vanessa 2006 Taraco Archaeological Project: Report of the 2005 Excavations at the Sites of Sonaji and Kumi Kipa. Report submitted to the Directorate Unidad Nacional de Arqueología de Bolivia, La Paz.Google Scholar
Hastorf, Christine A., and Johanessen, Sissel 1993 Prehispanic Political Change and the Role of Maize in the Central Andes of Peru. American Anthropologist 95:115–138.Google Scholar
Hastorf, Christine A., Whitehead, William T., Bruno, Maria C., and Wright, Melanie 2006 The Movements of Maize into Middle Horizon Tiwanaku, Bolivia. In Histories of Maize: Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Prehistory, Linguistics, Biogeography, Domestication, and Evolution of Maize, edited by John E. Staller, Robert H. Tykot, and Bruce F. Benz, pp. 429–448. Academic Press, San Diego.Google Scholar
Hayashida, Frances 2008 Ancient: Beer and Modern Brewers: Ethnoarchaeological Observations of Maize Beer (Chicha) Production in Two Regions of the North Coast of Peru. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 27:161–174.Google Scholar
Hayashida, Frances 2009 Chicha Histories: Pre-Hispanic Brewing in the Andes and the Use of Ethnographic and Historical Analogues. In Drink and Power in the Andes, edited by Justin Jennings and Brenda Bowser, pp. 232–256. University of Florida Press, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Ho, Engseng 2006 The Graves of Tarim. University of California Press, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Janusek, John Wayne 2007 Ancient Tiwanaku. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Jennings, Justin 2005 La Chichera y El Patron: Chicha and the Energetics of Feasting in the Prehistoric Andes. In Foundations of Power in the Prehispanic Andes, edited by Kevin Vaughn, Dennis Ogburn, and Christina Conlee, pp. 241–259. Archaeological Papers No. 14. American Anthropological Association, Arlington, VA.Google Scholar
Jennings, Justin, and Bowser, Brenda (editors) 2009 Drink and Power in the Andes. University of Florida Press, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Jennings, Justin, and Bowser, Brenda 2009 Drink, Power, and Society in the Andes: An Introduction. In Drink and Power in the Andes, edited by Justin Jennings and Brenda Bowser, pp. 1–27. University of Florida Press, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Jennings, Justin, and Chatfield, Melissa 2009 Pots, Brewers, and Hosts: Women’s Power and the Limits of Central Andean Feasting. In Drink and Power in the Andes, edited by Justin Jennings and Brenda Bowser, pp. 200–231. University of Florida Press, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Johannessen, Sissel, and Hastorf, Christine A. (editors) 1994 Corn and Culture in the Prehistoric New World. West-view Press, Boulder, Colorado.Google Scholar
Kidder, Alfred 1956 Digging in the Titicaca Basin. University of Pennsylvania Museum Bulletin 20(3):16–29.Google Scholar
Klarich, Elizabeth A. 2004 From the Monumental to the Mundane: Defining Early Leadership Strategies at Late Formative Pukara, Peru. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Anthropolgy, University of California, Santa Barbara.Google Scholar
Kolata, Alan L. 1993 The Tiwanaku: Portrait of an Andean Civilization. Blackwell Publishers, Cambridge, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Kolata, Alan L. (editor) 1996 Agroecology. Tiwanaku and its Hinterland: Archaeology and Paleoecology of an Andean Civilization, Vol. 1. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington and London.Google Scholar
Kolata, Alan L. 2003 Urban and Rural Archaeology. Tiwanaku and its Hinterland: Archaeology and Paleoecology of an Andean Civilization, Vol. 2. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington and London.Google Scholar
Kolata, Alan L., and Ortloff, Charles R. 1996 Tiwanaku Raised-Field Agriculture in the Lake Titicaca Basin of Bolivia. In Agroecology, edited by Alan Kolata, pp. 109–152. Tiwanaku and its Hinterland: Archaeology and Paleoecology of an Andean Civilization, Vol. 1. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington and London.Google Scholar
Lee, Misumi A. 1997 Paleoethnobotanical Report of Five Yaya-Mama Sites from Lake Titicaca. Report on file at the University of Missouri Paleoethnobotany Laboratory, Columbia, MO.Google Scholar
Logan, Amanda L. 2006 The Application of Phytolith and Starch Grain Analysis to Understanding Formative Period Subsistence, Ritual, and Trade on the Taraco Peninsula, Highland Bolivia. Unpublished M.A. Thesis, Department of Anthropology. University of Missouri, Columbia.Google Scholar
MacNeish, Richard S., Nelken-Terner, Antoinette, and Vierra, Robert K. 1980 Introduction. In Prehistory of the Ayacucho Basin. Peru. Vol. 3. Nonceramic Artifacts, edited by Richard S. MacNeish, Robert K. Vierra, Antoinette Nelken-Terner, and Carl J. Phagen, pp. 1–34. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, Melanie J. 2005 What’s in That Pot? Using Stable Isotope Analysis to Understand Cuisines of the Taraco Peninsula, Bolivia 1500 B.C.-A.D. 1000. Unpublished Honors Thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Moore, Jerry 1989 Pre-Hispanic Beer in Coastal Peru: Technological and Social Context of Prehistoric Production. American Anthropologist 91:682–695.Google Scholar
Moore, Katherine, Bruno, Maria, Capriles, José, and Hastorf, Christine 2007 Integrated Contextual Approaches to Understanding Past Activities Using Plant and Animal Remains from Kala Uyuni. In Kala Uyuni: An Early Political Center in the Southern Lake Titicaca Basin: 2003 Excavations of the Taraco Archaeological Project, edited by Matthew Bandy and Christine Hastorf, pp. 113–133. Contributions of the Archaeological Research Facility No. 64. University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Morris, Craig 1979 Maize Beer in the Economics, Politics, and Religion of the Inca Empire. In Fermented Food Beverages in Nutrition, edited by Clifford F. Gastineau, William J. Darby and Thomas B.Turner, pp. 21–34. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Morris, Craig 1982 The Infrastructure of Inca Control in the Peruvian Central Highlands. In The Inca and Aztec States 1400–1800: Anthropology and History, edited by George A. Collier, Renato I. Rosaldo, and John D. Wirth, pp. 119–152. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Mulholland, Susan C. 1992 A Test of Phytolith Analysis at Big Hidatsa, North Dakota. In Current Research in Phytolith Analysis: Applications in Archaeology and Paleoecology, edited by Deborah M. Pearsall and Dolores R. Piperno, pp. 131–146. Museum Applied Science Center for Archaeology (MASCA), The University Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Murra, John V. 1972 El control vertical de un máximo de pisos ecológicos en la economía de las sociedades andinas. In Visita de la Provincia de León de Huanaco, Perú, edited by John V. Murra, pp.429–476. Universidad Hermilio Valdizan, Huanaco, Peru.Google Scholar
Murra, John V. 1980 Economic Organization of the Inca State. JAI Press, Greenwich, Connecticut.Google Scholar
Murra, John V. 1986 The Expansion of the Inca State: Armies, War, and Rebellions. In Anthropological History of Andean Polities, edited by John V. Murra, Nathan Watchel, and Jaques Revel,pp.49–58. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge and Maison des Sciences de L’Homme, Paris.Google Scholar
Ortloff, Charles R., and Kolata, Alan L. 1993 Climate and Collapse: Agro-Ecological Perspectives on the Decline of the Tiwanaku State. Journal of Archaeological Science 20:195–221.Google Scholar
Paz Soria, José Luis 1999 Excavations in the Llusco Area. In Early Settlement at Chiripa, Bolivia: Research of the Taraco Archaeological Project, edited by Christine A. Hastorf, pp. 31–36. Contributions of the Archaeological Research Facility Number 57, University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Pearsall, Deborah M. 1978 Phytolith Analysis of Archaeological Soils: Evidence for Maize Cultivation in Formative Ecuador. Science 199:177–178.Google Scholar
Pearsall, Deborah M. 1989 Adaptation of Prehistoric Hunter-Gatherers to the High Andes: The Changing Role of Plant Resources. In Foraging and Farming: The Evolution of Plant Exploitation, edited by David R. Harris and Gordon C. Hillman, pp. 318–332. Unwin Hyman, London.Google Scholar
Pearsall, Deborah M. 1999 Agricultural Evolution and the Emergence of Formative Societies in Ecuador. In Pacific Latin America in Prehistory: The Evolution of Archaic and Formative Cultures, edited by Michael Blake, pp. 161–170. Washington State University Press, Pullman.Google Scholar
Pearsall, Deborah M. 2000 Paleoethnobotany: A Handbook of Procedures. 2nd ed. Academic Press, San Diego.Google Scholar
Pearsall, Deborah M. 2002 Maize is Still Ancient in Prehistoric Ecuador: The View from Real Alto, with Comments on Staller and Thompson. Journal of Archaeological Science 29:51–55.Google Scholar
Pearsall, Deborah M., Chandler-Ezell, Karol, and Chandler-Ezell, Alex 2003 Identifying Maize in Neotropical Sediments and Soils Using Cob Phytoliths. Journal of Archaeological Science 30:611–627.Google Scholar
Pearsall, Deborah M., Chandler-Ezell, Karol, and Zeidler, James A. 2004 Maize in Ancient Ecuador: Results of Residue Analysis of Stone Tools from the Real Alto Site. Journal of Archaeological Science 31:423–442.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pearsall, Deborah M., and Piperno, Dolores R. 1990 Antiquity of Maize Cultivation in Ecuador: Summary and Reevaluation of the Evidence. American Antiquity 55:324–336.Google Scholar
Perry, Linda, Sandweiss, Daniel H., Piperno, Dolores R., Rademaker, Kurt, Malpass, Michael A., Umire, Adan, and de la Vera, Pablo 2006 Early Maize Agriculture and Interzonal Interaction in Southern Peru. Nature 440:76–79.Google Scholar
Piperno, Dolores R. 1984 A Comparison and Differentiation of Phytoliths from Maize and Wild Grasses: Use of Morphological Criteria. American Antiquity 49:361–383.Google Scholar
Piperno, Dolores R. 2005 Phytoliths: A Comprehensive Guide for Archaeologists and Pateoecologists. Altamira Press, Lanham, Maryland.Google Scholar
Piperno, Dolores R., and Hoist, Irene 1998 The Presence of Starch Grains on Prehistoric Stone Tools from the Humid Neotropics: Indications of Early Tuber Use and Agriculture in Panama. Journal of Archaeological Science 25:765–776.Google Scholar
Piperno, Dolores R., and Pearsall, Deborah M. 1993 Phytoliths in the Reproductive Structures of Maize and Teosinte: Implications for the Study of Maize Evolution. Journal of Archaeological Science 20:337–362.Google Scholar
Piperno, Dolores R., and Pearsall, Deborah M. 1998 The Origins of Agriculture in the Lowland Neotropics. Academic Press, San Diego.Google Scholar
Pizarro, Pedro 1965[1571] Relación del descubrimiento y conquista de los reinos del Perú. In Crónicas del Perú, Biblioteca de Autores Espan_oles 68:159–242. Ediciones Atlas, Madrid.Google Scholar
Poma de Ayala, F. Guaman 1987[1615] Nuevu crónica y buen gobierno. Historia 16, Madrid.Google Scholar
Portugal Ortíz, Max 1981 Expansión del estilo escultórico Pa-Ajanu. Arte y Arqueología 7:149–159.Google Scholar
Ramírez, R. E., Timothy, D. H., Díaz, E., and Grant, U. J. 1961 Razas de maíz en Bolivia. División de Investigaciones Agropecuarias Boletín Técnico No. 9, Bogotá.Google Scholar
Raviele, María E. 2010 Assessing Carbonized Archaeological Cooking Residues: Evaluation of Maize Phytolith Taphonomy and Density through Experimental Residue Analysis. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Michigan State University.Google Scholar
Raymond, J. Scott, and DeBoer, Warren R. 2006 Maize on the Move. In Histories of Maize: Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Prehistory, Linguistics, Biogeography, Domestication, and Evolution of Maize, edited by John Staller, Robert Tykot, and Bruce Benz, pp. 337–343. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Reichert, Edward T. 1913 The Differentiation and Specificity of Starches in Relation to Genera, Species, Etc. Carnegie Institute of Washington, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Roddick, Andrew 2002 Archaeological Approaches to Ritual in the Andes: A Ceramic Analysis of Ceremonial Space at the Formative Period Site of Chiripa, Bolivia. Unpublished M.A. Thesis, Department of Anthropology and Sociology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.Google Scholar
Schreiber, Katharina 1992 Wari Imperialism in Middle Horizon Peru. Museum of Anthropology Anthropological Papers 87. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Stahl, Ann 1993 Concepts of Time and Approaches to Analogical Reasoning in Historical Perspective. American Antiquity 58:235–260.Google Scholar
Staller, John E. 2006 The Social, Symbolic, and Economic Significance of Zea mays L. in the Late Horizon Period. In Histories of Maize: Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Prehistory, Linguistics, Biogeography, Domestication, and Evolution of Maize, edited by John E. Staller, Robert H. Tykot, and Bruce F. Benz, pp. 449–470. Academic Press, San Diego.Google Scholar
Staller, John E., and Thompson, Robert G. 2002 A Multidisciplinary Approach to Understanding the Initial Introduction of Maize into Coastal Ecuador. Journal of Archaeological Science 29:33–50.Google Scholar
Stanish, Charles 2003 Ancient Titicaca: The Evolution of Complex Society in Southern Peru and Northern Bolivia. University of California Press, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Steadman, Lee 2007 Ceramic Analysis. In Kala Uyuni: An Early Political Center in the Southern Lake Titicaca Basin: 2003 Excavations of the Taraco Archaeological Project, edited by Matthew Bandy and Christine Hastorf, pp. 67–112. Contributions of the Archaeological Research Facility No. 64, University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Thompson, Lonnie G., Mosley-Thompson, Ellen, Bolzan, J.F., and Koci, B.R. 1985 A 1500-Year Record of Tropical Precipitation in Ice Cores from the Quelccaya Ice Cap, Peru. Science 229:971–973.Google Scholar
Thompson, Robert 2006 Documenting the Presence of Maize in Central and South America Through Phytolith Analysis of Food Residues. In Documenting Domestication: New Genetic and Archaeological Paradigms, edited by Melinda A. Zeder, Daniel G. Bradley, Eve Emshwiller, and Bruce D. Smith, pp. 82–98. University of California Press, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Twiss, Page C., Suess, Erwin, and Smith, R.M. 1969 Morphological Classification of Grass Phytoliths. Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 33:109–115.Google Scholar
Tykot, Robert H., Burger, Richard L., and van der Merwe, Nicholas 2006 The Importance of Maize in the Initial Period and Early Horizon Peru. In Histories of Maize: Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Prehistory, Linguistics, Biogeography, Domestication, and Evolution of Maize, edited by John E. Staller, Robert H.Tykot, and Bruce F. Benz, pp. 187–198. Academic Press, San Diego.Google Scholar
Umlauf, Marcelle La Vieve 1988 Paleoethnobotanical Investigations at the Initial Period Site of Cardal, Peru. Unpublished M.A. Thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Missouri, Columbia.Google Scholar
Valdez, Lidio M. 2006 Maize Beer Production in Middle Horizon Peru. Journal of Anthropological Research 62:53–80.Google Scholar
Valdez, Lidio M., Bettcher, Katrina J., and Ernesto Valdez, J. 2010 Production of Maize Beer at a Wari Site in the Ayacucho Valley, Peru. Archaeologia Iberoamericana 5:23–35.Google Scholar
Weismantel, Mary J. 1991 Maize Beer and Andean Social Transformations: Drunken Indians, Bread Babies, and Chosen Women. MLN 106:861–879.Google Scholar
Weismantel, Mary J. 2009 Have a Drink: Chicha, Performance, and Politics. In Drink and Power in the Andes, edited by Justin Jennings and Brenda Bowser, pp. 257–278. University of Florida Press, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Whitehead, William T. 1999a Radiocarbon Dating. In Early Settlement at Chiripa Bolivia, edited by Christine A. Hastorf, pp. 17–22. Contributions of the Archaeological Research Facility Number 57, University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Whitehead, William T. 1999b Paleoethnobotanical Evidence. In Early Settlement at Chiripa Bolivia, edited by Christine A. Hastorf, pp. 95–104. Contributions of the Archaeological Research Facility Number 57, University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Wright, Melanie F., Hastorf, Christine A., and Lennstrom, Heidi A. 2003 Pre-Hispanic Agriculture and Plant Use at Tiwanaku: Social and Political Implications. In Urban and Rural Archaeology, edited by Alan L. Kolata, pp. 384–403. Tiwanaku and Its Hinterland: Archaeology and Paleoecology of an Andean Civilization, Volume 2. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington and London.Google Scholar
Zarrillo, Sonia 2004 Extraction Procedure for Starch and Phytoliths from Carbonized Pottery Residues. Manuscript on file. University of Calgary.Google Scholar
Zarrillo, Sonia, Pearsall, Deborah M., Scott Raymond, J., Tisdale, Mary Ann, and Quon, Dugane J. 2008 Directly Dated Starch residues Document Early Maize (Zea mays L.) in Tropical Ecuador. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105(13):5006–5011.Google Scholar