Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-l7hp2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T04:42:28.601Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Head Extraction, Interregional Exchange, and Political Strategies of Control at the Site of Wata Wata, Kallawaya Territory, Bolivia, During the Transition between the Late Formative and Tiwanaku Periods (A.D. 200-800)

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Sara K. Becker
Affiliation:
Department of Behavioral Sciences, York College of Pennsylvania, 441 Country Club Road, York, PA 17403, ([email protected])
Sonia Alconini
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249(, [email protected])

Abstract

This study focuses on trophy head taking during the transition between the Late Formative period and Tiwanaku period (A.D. 200-800) based on evidence from a dedicatory offering found at the site of Wata Wata, east of the Titicaca Basin. Although trophy-head taking was common in other precontact Andean cultures, evidence of the practice among cultures from this region is usually present only in iconography and not in actual physical remains. We explore the nature of this find and its placement within the trade and ceremonial center of Wata Wata. The three individuals included in the offering underwent various levels of violence at or around the time of death, including beheading, cranial and facial fracturing, defleshingjaw removal, and possible eye extraction. Such violence makes it unlikely that the heads were offered as part of a cult to revere ancestors. We argue that these heads, entombed in a ritual cache and sealed with a capstone, embody a strategic metaphor to remove authority and influence from the individuals, because skulls can be Andean symbols of power in life and the afterlife. The violent acts carried out on these crania may also have been a way to advertise broader changes during this transitional period in the Kallawaya region, a strategic exchange corridor between ecological zones in the Central Andes.

Resumen

Resumen

Esta investigatioón se enfoca en entender las prácticas de decapitatión durante la transición Formativo Tardío a Tiwanaku (200-800 d.C), sobre la base del estudio de una ofrenda con tres cráneos humanos encontrados en el sitio de Wata Wata. El mismo se ubica en los valles del territorio Kallawaya, al oriente de la cuenca del Titicaca. Aunque el uso de cabezas trofeo es común en las culturas Andinas durante elperiodo pre-Colombino, en Tiwanaku dicho uso se restringe a su iconografía. La evidencia física sobre esta práctica es muy escasa. En este contexto, en este trabajo exploramos la naturaleza de esta ofrenda en el centro ceremonial y de intercambio de Wata Wata. Este estudio muestra los altos niveles de violencia a la que fueron sujetos los individuos alrededor ojusto al momento de su muerte, incluyendo decapitatión, fracturas craneales y faciales, descarne, remoción de las mandíbulas y posiblemente extractión ocular. For tanto, estos marcados niveles de violencia hacen inviable que esta práctica haya estado asociada a un culto de reverencia a los ancestros. Más bien, consideramos que estos cráneos enterrados en una ofrenda ritual que posteriormente fuera sellada, fueron parte de una metáfora ritual destinada a quitar autoridad e influencia política. Al respecto, en los Andes, los crdneos son considerados potentes simbolos de poder tanto en esta vida como en el más allá. Por tanto, los niveles de violencia infringidos a estos cráneos, pudieron haber servido de propaganda durante esta crítica transitión Formativo Tardío-Tiwanaku en la región Kallawaya, un estratégico corredor de intercambio inter-ecológico en los Andes Centrales.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Society for American Archaeology 2015

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Aguilo, Federico 1991 Diccionario Kallawaya. MUSEF, La Paz, Bolivia.Google Scholar
Alconini, Sonia 1995 Rito, Simbolo e Historia en la Pirámide de Akapana, Tiwanaku: un Análisis de Cerámica Ceremonial Prehis-pánica. Editorial Accion, La Paz, Bolivia.Google Scholar
Alconini, Sonia 2011 Imperial Marginality and Frontier: Kallawayas and Chunchos in the Eastern Inka Borders. Final Project Report (2006–2010) submitted to the National Science Foundation, Award No. 0635342.Google Scholar
Alconini, Sonia 2015a The Center of Wata Wata in the Kallawaya Region: Ritual, Exchange and Residence during the Formative and Tiwanaku. In Otras Miradas: La Presencia de la Mujer en las Sociedades Prehispánicas, edited by W. Sanchez, Cochabamba, in press.Google Scholar
Alconini, Sonia 2015b Trayectorias Culturales los Yungas Centro Sur y Valles Adyacentes: hacia una Evaluación de las Tradiciones Yunga Género Tosco y Cerámica Estampada e Incisa de Bordes Doblados. In Hacia Una Comprensión de Los Yungas y Montaña Tropical Centro-Sur: Desarrollos Políticos Regionales, Intercambio e Interactión Interregional, edited by S. Alconini. Plural, La Paz, Bolivia, in press.Google Scholar
Alconini, Sonia, and Becker, Sara K. 2015 Sacrificio, Decapitatión, y Remoción Ocular: Es-trategias Tiwanaku de Control Político y Religioso en los Valles Orientates. In Tiahuanaco 1903—La Paz 2013: 110 Años De Colaboraciones Arqueológicas Francoamer-icanas, edited by IFEA. IFEA, Lima, Peru, in press.Google Scholar
Andrushko, Valerie A. 2011 How the Wari Fashioned Trophy Heads for Display: A Distinctive Modified Cranium from Cuzco, Peru and Comparison to Trophies from the Capital Region. In The Bioarchaeology of the Human Head: Decapitation, Decoration and Deformation, edited by M. Bonogofsky, pp. 262285. University Press of Florida, Gainesville. Google Scholar
Arnold, Denise Y. 2005 The Social Life of a Communal Chest: Hybrid Characters and the Imagined Genealogies of Written Documents and Their Woven Ancestors. In Repensando Elpasado, Recuperando El Futuro: Nuevos Aportes Interdisciplinarios Para El Estudio De La America Colonial/Remembering the Past, Retrieving the Future: New Interdisciplinary Contributions to the Study of Colonial Latin America, edited by V. Salles, pp. 92131. Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá. Google Scholar
Arnold, Denise Y., and Hastorf, Christine A. 2008 Heads of State: Icons, Power, and Politics in the Ancient and Modern Andes. Left Coast Press, Walnut Creek, California.Google Scholar
Bandy, Matthew S. 2004 Trade and Social Power in the Southern Titicaca Basin Formative. In Foundations of Power in the Prehis-panic Andes, edited by K. J. Vaughn, D. Ogburn, and C. Conlee, pp. 91112. Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association, No. 14, Arlington, Virginia. Google Scholar
Bass, William M. 1981 Human Osteology: A Laboratory and Field Manual of the Human Skeleton. Missouri Archaeological Society, Columbia, Missouri.Google Scholar
Bastien, Joseph W. 1978 Mountain of the Condor: Metaphor and Ritual in an Andean Ayllu. Waveland Press, Prospect Heights, Illinois.Google Scholar
Berryman, Hugh E., and Gunther, Wendy M. 2000 Keyhole Defect Production in Tubular Bone. Journal of Forensic Sciences 45(2):483487.Google Scholar
Berryman, Hugh E., and Symes, Steven A. 1998 Recognizing Gunshot and Blunt Cranial Trauma through Fracture Interpretation. In Forensic Osteology: Advances in the Identification of Human Remain., 2nd ed, edited by Kathy Reichs, pp. 333352. Springfield, Illinois. Google Scholar
Blom, Deborah E., and Janusek, John Wayne 2004 Making Place: Humans as Dedications in Tiwanaku. World Archaeology 36(1): 123141.Google Scholar
Browman, David L. 1984 Tiwanaku: Development of Interzonal Trade and Economic Expansion in the Altiplano. In Social and Economic Organization in the Prehispanic Andes, Bar International Series 194, edited by D. Browman, R. Burger, and M. Rivera, pp. 117142. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford. Google Scholar
Browne, David M., Silverman, Helaine, and García, Rubén 1993 A Cache of 48 Nasca Trophy Heads from Cerro Carapo, Peru. Latin American Antiquity 4(3):274294.Google Scholar
Buikstra, Jane E., and Ubelaker, Douglas H. (editors) 1994 Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains. Arkansas Archeological Survey, Fayetteville.Google Scholar
Chávez, Karen Mohr 1988 The Significance of Chiripa in Lake Titicaca Basin Developments. Expedition 30(3): 1726.Google Scholar
Chávez Quispe, Juan Carlos 2009 Kalla Kalian, un Centra de Interactién Yunga-Kall-awaya-Tiwanaku en Los Valles de Charazani-Curva durante el Horizonte Medio (ca. 500–1150 DC). Unpublished licenciatura thesis, Carrera de Arqueología, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia.Google Scholar
Chávez, Sergio 1992 The Conventionalized Rules in Pucara Pottery Technology and Iconography Implications for Socio-Political Developments in the Northern Lake Titicaca Basin. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Christensen, Angi M., Passalacqua, Nicholas V., and Bartelink, Eric J. 2014 Forensic Anthropology: Current Methods and Practice. Academic Press, San Diego.Google Scholar
Clados, Christiane 2009 New Perspectives on Tiwanaku Iconography. In Tiwanaku, edited by M. Young-Sánchez, pp. 101114. Johnson Printing, Boulder. Google Scholar
Curry, Dennis C. 1999 Feast of the Dead: Aboriginal Ossuaries in Maryland. Archeological Society of Maryland and Maryland Historical Trust Press, Myersville.Google Scholar
Douglas, Allsop, and Kennett, Kelly 2002 Skull and Facial Bone Trauma. In Accidental Injury: Biomechanics and Prevention, edited by A. M. Nahum and J. Melvin, pp. 254258. Springer, Berlin. Google Scholar
Fenton, James 1991 The Social Uses of Dead People: Problems and Solutions in the Analysis of Post Mortem Body Processing in the Archaeological Record. PhD. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Columbia University, New York.Google Scholar
Finucane, Brian Clifton 2008 Trophy Heads from Nawinpukio, Peru: Physical and Chemical Analysis of Huarpa-Era Modified Human Remains. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 135:7584.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Girault, Louis 1969 Textiles Boliviens: Region de Charazani. Série H: Amérique Iv. Muséum National D'Historie Naturelle, Paris.Google Scholar
Guaman Poma de Ayala, Felipe 2006 [1613] El Primer Nueva Corónica y Buen Gobierno. Editorial Siglo Veintiuno, Mexico City.Google Scholar
Guillen, Sonia Elizabeth 1992 The Chinchorro Culture: Mummies and Crania in the Reconstruction of Preceramic Coastal Adaptations in the South Central Andes. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Hamilton, Laurel S. 2005 Cut Marks as Evidence of Precolumbian Human Sacrifice and Postmortem Bone Modification on the North Coast of Peru, Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Tulane University, New Orleans.Google Scholar
Hanula, Krzysztof Mokowski 2009 Royal Statuses, Staff Gods, and the Religious Ideology of the Prehistoric State of Tiwanaku. In Tiwanaku, edited by M. Young-Sanchez, pp. 133164. Johnson Publishing, Boulder. Google Scholar
Hastorf, Christine 2003 Community with the Ancestors: Ceremonies and Social Memory in the Middle Formative at Chiripa, Bolivia. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology (22):305332.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hastorf, Christine, Bandy, Mathew, Whitehead, William T., Steadman, Lee, Moore, Katherine, Paz, Jose Luis Soria, Roddick, Andrew P., Bruno, Maria, Fernandez, Soledad, Killackey, Kathryn, Logan, Amanda L., Ulluo, Delfor Vidauure, Callisaya, Luis, Capriles, José Flores, Stovel, Emily, Raath, Mariana, and Antonites, Xander 2005 Proyecto Arqueológico Taraco: Informe de las Excavaciones de la Temporada del 2004 en los Sitios de Kumi Kipa, Sonaji y Chiripa. Informe Presentado a la Unidad Nacional de Arqueologia de Bolivia.Google Scholar
Isbell, William H., and Knobloch, Patricia 2008 Missing Links, Imaginary Links: Staff God Imagery in the South Andean Past. In Andean Archaeology III: North and South, edited by W. H. Isbell and H. Silverman, pp. 307351. Springer, New York. Google Scholar
Janusek, John Wayne 2004 Tiwanaku and Its Precursors: Recent Research and Emerging Perspectives. Journal of Archaeological Research 12(2): 121183.Google Scholar
Janusek, John Wayne 2008 Ancient Tiwanaku. Case Studies in Early Societies. Cambridge University Press, New York.Google Scholar
Kolata, Alan L. 1993 The Tiwanaku: Portrait of an Andean Civilization. Blackwell, Oxford.Google Scholar
Manzanilla, Linda, and Woodard, Eric 1990 Restos Humanos Asociados a La Pirámide De Akapana (Tiwanaku, Bolivia). Latin American Antiquity 1(2): 133149.Google Scholar
Meyers, Rodica 2002 Cuando el Sol Caminaba por la Tierra: Orígenes de la Intermediatión Kallawaya. Plural Editores, La Paz, Bolivia.Google Scholar
Oakland, Amy S. 1986 Tiahuanaco Tapestry Tunics and Mantles from San Pedro De Atacama, Chile. In Junius B. Bird Conference on Andean Textiles, edited by A.P. Rowe, pp. 101121. The Textile Museum, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Oblitas Poblete, Enrique 1978 Cultura Callawaya. Ediciones Populares Camarlinghi, La Paz, Bolivia.Google Scholar
Oblitas Poblete, Enrique 1992 Plantas Medicinales en Bolivia: Farmacopea Callawaya. Editorial Los Amigos del Libro, Cochabamba/La Paz.Google Scholar
Proulx, Donald A. 2001 Ritual Uses of Trophy Heads in Ancient Nasca Society. In Ritual Sacrifice in Ancient Peru, edited by E. P. Benson and A. G. Cook, pp. 119136. University of Texas Press, Austin. Google Scholar
Proulx, Donald A. 2006 A Sourcebook of Nasca Ceramic Iconography: Reading a Culture through Its Art. University of Iowa Press, Iowa City.Google Scholar
Rakita, Gordon F.M., Buikstra, Jane E., Beck, Lane A., and Williams, Sloan R. (editors) 2005 Interacting with the Dead: Perspectives on Mortuary Archaeology for the New Millennium. University Press of Florida, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Roddick, Andrew P. 2009 Communities of Pottery Production and Consumption on the Taraco Peninsula, Bolivia, 200 BC–300 AD. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Rösing, Ina 1995 La Mesa Blanca Callawaya: Contributión al Análisis, Observciones Intraculturales y Transculturales. Los Amigos del Libro, Cochabamba/La Paz.Google Scholar
Rösing, Ina 1996 Rituales para Llamar la Lluvia: Rituales Colectivos de La Región Kallawaya en los Andes Bolivianos, Segundo Ciclo de Ankari, Mundo Ankari 5. Los Amigos del Libro.Google Scholar
Rydén, Stig 1957 Andean Excavations 1: The Tiahuanaco Area East of Lake Titicaca. Ethnographical Museum of Sweden. Series No. 6. Ethnographical Museum of Sweden, Stockholm.Google Scholar
Saignes, Thierry 1984 Quienes son los Callahuayas: Nota Sobre un Enigma Histórico. In Espacio y Tiempo en el Mundo Callahuaya, edited by T. Gisbert, W. Shoop, E. L. Gisbert, L. Mankhe, T. Saignes, S. Arze, and M. Cajias. Instituto de Estudios Bolivianos, Facultad de Humanidades, Universidad Mayor de San Andres, La Paz.Google Scholar
Saignes, Thierry 1985 Los Andes Orientates: Historia De Un Olvido. IFEA/CERES, Cochabamba.Google Scholar
Seeman, Mark F. 2007 Predatory War and Hopewell Trophies. In The Taking and Displaying of Human Body Parts as Trophies by Amerindians, edited by R. Chacon and D. Dye, pp. 167189. Springer, New York. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silverman, Helaine, and Proulx, Donald 2002 The Nasca. Blackwell, Maiden.Google Scholar
Simon, Sara K. 2003 The Effect of Chiefdom Formation on the Health of Aboriginal Populations in the Chesapeake Bay Area of Maryland and Virginia. Unpublished Masters thesis, Department of Anthropology, California State University, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Smith, Scott 2012 Generative Landscapes: The Step Mountain Motif in Tiwanaku Iconography. Ancient America 12:170.Google Scholar
Sofaer, Joanna R. 2006 The Body as Material Culture: A Theoretical Osteoarchaeology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Steele, D. Gentry, and Bramblett, Claud A. 1988 The Anatomy and Biology of the Human Skeleton. Texas A&M University Press, College Station.Google Scholar
Sutter, Richard C., and Cortez, Rosa J. 2005 The Nature of Moche Human Sacrifice. Current Anthropology 46(4):521549.Google Scholar
Torres, Constantino Manuel 1987 The Iconography of South American Snuff Trays and Related Paraphernalia. Etnologiska Studier. Goteborgs Etnografiska Museum 37, Goteborgs.Google Scholar
Torres, Constantino Manuel 2001 Iconografía Tiwanaku En La Paraphernalia Inhalatoria De Los Andes Centro-Sur. In Huari Y Tiwanaku: Modelos Vs. Evidencias. Boletín De Arqueologia No. 5, edited by P. Kaulicke and W. Isbell, pp. 427454. PUCP, Lima. Google Scholar
Tung, Tiffiny A. 2003 A Bioarchaeolcgical Perspective on Wari Imperialism in the Andes of Peru: A View from Heartland and Hinterland Skeletal Populations. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill.Google Scholar
Tung, Tiffiny A. 2007 From Corporeality to Sanctity: Transforming Bodies into Trophy Heads in the Pre-Hispanic Andes. In The Taking and Displaying of Human Body Parts as Trophies by Amerindians, edited by R. J. Chacon and D. H. Dye, pp. 481504. Springer, New York. Google Scholar
Tung, Tiffiny A. 2008 Dismembering Bodies for Display: A Bioarchaeological Study of Trophy Heads from the Wari Site of Conchopata, Peru. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 136:294308.Google Scholar
Tung, Tiffiny A., and Knudson, Kelly J. 2010 Childhood Lost: Abductions, Sacrifice, and Trophy Heads of Children in the WariEmpire of the Ancient Andes. Latin American Antiquity 21(1):4466.Google Scholar
Ubelaker, Douglas H. 1974 Reconstruction of Demographic Profiles from Ossuary Skeletal Samples: A Case Study from the Tidewater Potomac. Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology No. 18. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Verano, John W. 1986 A Mass Burial of Mutilated Individuals at Pacatnamu. In The Pacatnamu Papers, edited by C. B. Donnan and G. A. Cock, pp. 117138. vol. 1. Museum of Cultural History, Los Angeles. Google Scholar
Verano, John W. 1995 Where Do They Rest? The Treatment of Human Offerings and Trophies in Ancient Peru. In Tombs for the Living: Andean Mortuary Practices, edited by T.D. Dillehay, pp. 189227. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Verano, John W. 2001 The Physical Evidence of Human Sacrifice in Ancient Peru. In Ritual Sacrifice in Ancient Peru, edited by E.P. Benson and A.G. Cook, pp. 165184. University of Texas Press, Austin. Google Scholar
Verano, John W. 2008 Trophy Head-Taking and Human Sacrifice in Andean South America. In Handbook of South American Archaeology, edited by H. Silverman and W.H. Isbell, pp. 10471060. Springer, New York. Google Scholar
Wassén, Henry S. 1972 A Medicine-Man's Implements and Plants in a Tiahuanacoid Tomb in HighlandBolivia. Goteborgs Etnografiska Museum, Göteborgs.Google Scholar
White, Tim D., Black, Michael T., and Folkens, Pieter A. 2011 Human Osteology, Third Edition. Academic Press, San Diego.Google Scholar
Young-Sánchez, Margaret 2004 Tiwanaku: Ancestors of the lnca. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Young-Sánchez, Margaret 2009 Tiwanaku: Papers from the 2005 Mayer Center Symposium at the Denver Art Museum. Johnson Printing, Boulder, Colorado.Google Scholar