Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-8bhkd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-09T06:12:48.502Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

The role and importance of lower-level processes in second language reading

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 December 2013

Hossein Nassaji*
Affiliation:
University of Victoria, [email protected]

Abstract

This article examines current research on the role and importance of lower-level processes in second language (L2) reading. The focus is on word recognition and its subcomponent processes, including various phonological and orthographic processes. Issues related to syntactic and semantic processes and their relationship with word recognition are also discussed. When examining the role of these processes, an important focus is also on cross-linguistic variables and the various ways in which they facilitate or impede the development of L2 reading skills. The review concludes with a discussion of the implications of the issues addressed for L2 reading instruction and directions for future research.

Type
State-of-the-Art Article
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abu-Rabia, S. & Siegel, L. S. (2002). Reading, syntactic, orthographic, and working memory skills of bilingual Arabic-English speaking Canadian children. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 31, 661678.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adams, M. J. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Akamatsu, N. (2002). A similarity in word-recognition procedures among second language readers with different first language backgrounds. Applied Psycholinguistics 23, 117134.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Akamatsu, N. (2003). The effects of first language orthographic features on second language reading in text. Language Learning 53, 207231.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Akamatsu, N. (2008). The effects of training on automatization of word recognition in English as a foreign language. Applied Psycholinguistics 29, 175193.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alario, F. X., De Cara, B. & Ziegler, J. C. (2007). Automatic activation of phonology in silent reading is parallel: Evidence from beginning and skilled readers. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 97, 205219.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, R. C. & Pearson, P. D. (1984). A schema-theoretic view of basic processes in reading comprehension. In Pearson, P. D. (ed.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. 1). New York: Longman, 255291.Google Scholar
Atwill, K., Blanchard, J., Gorin, J. S. & Burstein, K. (2007). Receptive vocabulary and cross-language transfer of phonemic awareness in kindergarten children. The Journal of Educational Research 100, 336346.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baluch, B. (1993). Lexical decisions in Persian: A test of the orthographic depth hypothesis. International Journal of Psychology 28, 1929.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barker, T. A., Torgesen, J. & Wagner, R. K. (1992). The role of orthographic processing skills on five different reading tasks. Reading Research Quarterly 27, 335345.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barron, R. W. (1986). Word recognition in early reading: A review of the direct and indirect access hypotheses. Cognition 24, 93119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bell, L. & Perfetti, C. A. (1994). Reading skill: Some adult comparisons. Journal of Educational Psychology 86, 244255.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bensoussan, M. & Laufer, B. (1984). Lexical guessing in context in EFL reading comprehension. Journal of Research in Reading 7, 1523.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bernhardt, E. B. (1986). Cognitive processes in L2. In Lantolf, J. & Labarca, L. (eds.), Research in second language learning: Focus on the classroom. Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 3551.Google Scholar
Bernhardt, E. B. (2010). Understanding advanced second-language reading. New York: Taylor & Francis.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bernhardt, E. B. & Kamil, M. L. (1995). Interpreting relationships between L1 and L2 reading: Consolidating the linguistic threshold and the linguistic interdependence hypotheses. Applied Linguistics 16, 1534.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berninger, V. W. (1994). Introduction. In Berninger, V. W. (ed.), The varieties of orthographic knowledge I: Theoretical and developmental issues. Dordrecht: Kluwer, 125.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berninger, V. W. (1995). Introduction. In Berninger, V. W. (ed.), The varieties of orthographic knowledge II: Relationships to phonology, reading, and writing. Dordrecht: Kluwer, 121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berninger, V. W., Vaughan, K., Abbott, R. D., Brooks, A., Begay, K., Curtin, G., Byrd, K. & Graham, S. (2000). Language-based spelling instruction: Teaching children to make multiple connections between spoken and written words. Learning Disability Quarterly 23, 117135.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braze, D., Tabor, W., Shankweiler, D. P. & Mencl, W. E. (2007). Speaking up for vocabulary: Reading skill differences in young adults. Journal of Learning Disabilities 40, 226243.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Breznitz, Z. (2006). Fluency in reading: Synchronization of processes. London: Lawrence Erlbaum.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Briggs, P., Austin, S. & Underwood, G. (1984). The effects of sentence context in good and poor readers: A test of Stanovich's interactive-compensatory model. Reading Research Quarterly 20, 5461.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bryant, P. E., MacLean, M., Bradley, L. L. & Crossland, J. (1990). Rhyme and alliteration, phoneme detection, and learning to read. Developmental Psychology 26, 429438.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buly, M. R. & Valencia, S. W. (2002). Below the bar: Profiles of students who fail state reading assessments. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 24, 219239.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cain, K. (2007). Syntactic awareness and reading ability: Is there any evidence for a special relationship? Applied Psycholinguistics 28, 679694.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carrell, P. L. (1988). Some causes of text-boundedness and schema interference in ESL reading. In Carrell, P. L., Devine, J. & Eskey, D. E. (eds.), Interactive approaches to second language reading. New York: Cambridge University Press, 101113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carrell, P. L. & Eisterhold, J. C. (1983). Schema theory and ESL reading pedagogy. TESOL Quarterly 17, 553573.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Castles, A. & Coltheart, M. (2004). Is there a causal link from phonological awareness to success in learning to read? Cognition 91, 77111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chiappe, P. & Siegel, L. (1999). Phonological awareness and reading acquisition in English- and Punjabi-speaking Canadian children. Journal of Educational Psychology 91, 2028.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chiappe, P., Siegel, L. S. & Wade-Woolley, L. (2002). Linguistic diversity and the development of reading skills: A longitudinal study. Scientific Studies of Reading 6, 369400.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chikamatsu, N. (1996). The effects of L1 orthography on L2 word recognition: A study of American and Chinese learners of Japanese. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 18, 403432.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chikamatsu, N. (2006). Developmental word recognition: A study of L1 English readers of L2 Japanese. The Modern Language Journal 90, 6785.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chitiri, H. F., Sun, Y., Willows, D. M. & Taylor, I. (1992). Word recognition in second-language reading. Advances in Psychology 83, 283297.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chung, M. & Nation, P. (2006). The effect of a speed reading course. English Teaching 61, 181204.Google Scholar
Coady, J. (1979). A psycholinguistic model of the ESL reader. In Mackay, R., Barkman, B. & Jordan, R. R. (eds.), Reading in a second language. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 512.Google Scholar
Coltheart, M. (2005). Modelling reading: The dual route approach. In Snowling, M. J. & Hulme, C. (eds.), The science of reading. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 623.Google Scholar
Coltheart, M. (2006). Dual route and connectionist models of reading: An overview. London Review of Education 4.1, 517.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coltheart, M. (2012). Dural route theories of reading aloud. In Adelman, J. S. (ed.), Visual word recognition: Models and methods, orthography and phonology (Vol. 1). London: Psychology Press, 327.Google Scholar
Coltheart, M., Rastle, K., Perry, C., Langdon, R. & Ziegler, J. (2001). DRC: A dual route cascaded model of visual word recognition and reading aloud. Psychological Review 108, 204256.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Corcos, E. & Willows, D. M. (1993). The processing of orthographic information. In Willows, D. M., Kruk, R. S. & Corcos, E. (eds.), Visual processes in reading and reading disabilities. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 163190.Google Scholar
Cummins, J. (2000). Language, power, and pedagogy: Bilingual children in the crossfire. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cunningham, A. E., Perry, K. & Stanovich, K. E. (2001). Converging evidence for the concept of orthographic processing. Reading and Writing 14, 549568.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cunningham, A. E. & Stanovich, K. E. (1990). Assessing print exposure and orthographic processing skill in children: A quick measure of reading experience. Journal of Educational Psychology 82, 733740.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cunningham, A. E., Stanovich, K. E. & Wilson, M. R. (1990). Cognitive variation in adult college students differing in reading ability. In Carr, T. & Levy, B. A. (eds.), Reading and its development: Components skills approaches. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 129159.Google Scholar
Cupples, L. & Holmes, V. M. (1992). Evidence for a difference in syntactic knowledge between skilled and less skilled adult readers. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 21, 249274.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cutting, L. E. & Scarborough, H. S. (2006). Prediction of reading comprehension: Relative contributions of word recognition, language proficiency, and other cognitive skills can depend on how comprehension is measured. Scientific Studies of Reading 10, 277299.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
D’Angiulli, A., Siegel, L. S. & Serra, E. (2001). The development of reading in English and Italian in bilingual children. Applied Psycholinguistics 22, 479507.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deacon, S. & Kirby, J. (2004). Morphological awareness: Just ‘More phonological’? The roles of morphological and phonological awareness in reading development. Applied Psycholinguistics 25, 223238.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deacon, S., Wade-Woolley, L. & Kirby, J. (2007). Crossover: The role of morphological awareness in French immersion children's reading. Developmental Psychology 43, 732746.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Denton, C. A., Hasbrouck, J. E., Weaver, L. R. & Riccio, C. A. (2000). What do we know about phonological awareness in Spanish? Reading Psychology 21, 335352.Google Scholar
Dickinson, D. K., McCabe, A., Clark-Chiarelli, N. & Wolf, A. (2004). Cross-language transfer of phonological awareness in low-income Spanish and English bilingual preschool children. Applied Psycholinguistics 25, 323347.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Droop, M. & Verhoeven, L. (2003). Language proficiency and reading ability in first- and second-language learners. Reading Research Quarterly 38, 78103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Durgunoglu, A. Y., Nagy, W. E. & Hancin-Bhatt, B. J. (1993). Cross-language transfer of phonological awareness. Journal of Educational Psychology 85, 453465.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ehrlich, S. F. & Rayner, K. (1981). Contextual effects on word perception and eye movements during reading. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 20, 641655.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, N., Natsume, M., Stavropoulou, K., Hoxhallari, L., Van Daal, V., Polyzoe, N., Tsipa, M.-L. & Petalas, M. (2004). The effects of orthographic depth on learning to read alphabetic, syllabic, and logographic scripts. Reading Research Quarterly 39, 438468.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Everson, E. (1998). Word recognition among learners of Chinese as a foreign language: Investigating the relationship between naming and knowing. The Modern Language Journal 82, 194204.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Favreau, M. & Segalowitz, N. S. (1983). Automatic and controlled processes in the first-and second-language reading of fluent bilinguals. Memory & Cognition 11, 565574.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ferrand, L. & Grainger, J. (1994). Effects of orthography are independent of phonology in masked form priming. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, A: Human Experimental Psychology 47, 365382.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frisson, S., Rayner, K. & Pickering, M. (2005). Effects of contextual predictability and transitional probability on eye movements during reading. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 31, 862877.Google ScholarPubMed
Frost, R. (2005). Orthographic systems and skilled word recognition processes in reading. In Snowling, M. & Hulme, C. (eds.), The science of reading. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 272295.Google Scholar
Frost, R. & Katz, L. (1989). Orthographic depth and the interaction of visual and auditory processing in word recognition. Memory & Cognition 17, 302310.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frost, R., Katz, L. & Bentin, S. (1987). Strategies for visual word recognition and orthographical depth: A multilingual comparison. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 13, 104.Google ScholarPubMed
Fukkink, R. G., Hulstijn, J. & Simis, A. (2005). Does training in second-language word recognition skills affect reading comprehension? An experimental study. The Modern Language Journal 89, 5475.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gelderen, A. V., Schoonen, R., Stoel, R. D., Glopper, K. d. & Hulstijn, J. (2007). Development of adolescent reading comprehension in language 1 and language 2: A longitudinal analysis of constituent components. Journal of Educational Psychology 99, 477491.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geva, E., Wade-Woolley, L. & Shany, M. (1993). The concurrent development of spelling and decoding in two different orthographies. Journal of Reading Behavior 25, 383406.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geva, E. & Wang, M. (2001). The development of basic reading skills in children: A cross-language perspective. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 21, 182204.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geva, E. & Yaghoub Zadeh, Z. (2006). Reading efficiency in native English-speaking and English-as-a-second-language children: The role of oral proficiency and underlying cognitive-linguistic processes. Scientific Studies of Reading 10, 3157.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geva, E., Yaghoub-Zadeh, Z. & Schuster, B. (2000). Understanding individual differences in word recognition skills of ESL children. Annals of Dyslexia 50, 121154.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gholamain, M. & Geva, E. (1999). Orthographic and cognitive factors in the concurrent development of basic reading skills in English and Persian. Language Learning 49, 183217.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodman, K. S. (1967). Reading: A psycholinguistic guessing game. Literacy Research and Instruction 6, 126135.Google Scholar
Goodman, K. S. (1988). The reading process. In Carrell, P., Devine, J. & Eskey, D. E. (eds.), Interactive approaches to second language reading. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodman, K. S. (1996). On reading. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.Google Scholar
Goodman, K. S. (2011). The process of reading in non-alphabetic languages: An introduction. In Goodman, K. S., Wang, S., Iventosch, M. & Goodman, Y. (eds.), Reading in Asian languages: Making sense of written texts in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 315.Google Scholar
Goswami, U. (2000). Phonological representations, reading development and dyslexia: Towards a cross-linguistic theoretical framework. Dyslexia 6, 133151.3.0.CO;2-A>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goswami, U. (2008). The development of reading across languages. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1145, 112.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goswami, U. & Bryant, P. E. (1990). Phonological skills and learning to read. Hillsdale, NJ: Laurence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Gottardo, A. (2002). The relationship between language and reading skills in bilingual Spanish-English speakers. Topics in Language Disorders 22.5, 4670.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gottardo, A., Collins, P., Baciu, I. & Gebotys, R. (2008). Predictors of grade 2 word reading and vocabulary learning from grade 1 variables in Spanish-speaking children: Similarities and differences. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice 23, 1124.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gottardo, A., Stanovich, K. E. & Siegel, L. (1996). The relationships between phonological sensitivity, syntactic processing, and verbal working memory in the reading performance of third-grade children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 63, 563582.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gottardo, A., Yan, B., Siegel, L. & Wade-Woolley, L. (2001). Factors related to English reading performance in children with Chinese as a first language: More evidence of cross-language transfer of phonological processing. Journal of Educational Psychology 93, 530542.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gough, P. B. (1972). One second of reading. In Kavanagh, J. F. & Mattingly, I. G. (eds.), Language by ear and eye. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 331358.Google Scholar
Gough, P. B., Hoover, W. A. & Peterson, C. (1996). Some observations on a simple view of reading. In Cornoldi, C. & Oakhill, J. (eds.), Reading comprehension difficulties: Processes and interventions. Mahwah, NJ: Laurence Erlbaum, 113.Google Scholar
Gough, P. B. & Tunmer, W. E. (1986). Decoding, reading, and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education 7, 610.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grabe, W. (2009). Reading in a second language: Moving from theory to practice. New York: Cambridge Universiy Press.Google Scholar
Grainger, J. & Jacobs, M. (1996). Orthographic processing in visual word recognition: A multiple read-out model. Psychological Review 103, 518565.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grainger, J., Kiyonaga, K. & Holcomb, J. (2006). The time course of orthographic and phonological code activation. Psychological Science 17, 10211026.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grant, A., Gottardo, A. & Geva, E. (2011). Reading in English as a first or second language: The case of grade 3 Spanish, Portuguese, and English speakers. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice 26, 6783.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guan, C. Q., Liu, Y., Chan, D. H. L., Ye, F. & Perfetti, C. A. (2011). Writing strengthens orthography and alphabetic-coding strengthens phonology in learning to read Chinese. Journal of Educational Psychology 103, 509522.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haigh, C., Savage, R., Erdos, C. & Genesee, F. (2011). The role of phoneme and onset-rime awareness in second language reading acquisition. Journal of Research in Reading 34, 94113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Halderman, L. K., Asby, J. & Perfetti, C. A. (2012). Phonology: An early and integral role in identifying words. In Adelman, J. S. (ed.), Visual word recognition: Models and methods, orthography and phonology. (Vol. 1). London: Psychology Press, 207228.Google Scholar
Hamada, M. & Koda, K. (2008). Influence of first language orthographic experience on second language decoding and word learning. Language Learning 58, 131.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harlaar, N., Cutting, L., Deater-Deckard, K., DeThorne, L. S., Justice, L. M., Schatschneider, C., Thompson, L. A. & Petrill, S. A. (2010). Predicting individual differences in reading comprehension: A twin study. Annals of Dyslexia 60, 265288.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harm, M. W. & Seidenberg, M. S. (2004). Computing the meanings of words in reading: Cooperative division of labor between visual and phonological processes. Psychological Review 111, 662720.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haynes, M. & Carr, T. (1990). Writing system background and second language reading: A component skills analysis of English reading by native speakers of Chinese. In Carr, T. & Levy, B. A. (eds.), Reading and its development: Component skills approaches. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 375421.Google Scholar
Henderson, L. (1982). Orthography and word recognition in reading. London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Hinton, G. E., McClelland, J. L. & Rumelhart, D. E. (1986). Distributed representations. Parallel Distributed Processing: Explorations in the Microstructure of Cognition 1, 77109.Google Scholar
Hoien, T., Lundberg, I., Stanovich, K. E. & Bjaalid, I. K. (1995). Components of phonological awareness. Reading and Writing 7, 171188.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holm, A. & Dodd, B. (1996). The effect of first written language on the acquisition of English literacy. Cognition 59, 119147.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holmes, V. M. (2009). Bottom-up processing and reading comprehension in experienced adult readers. Journal of Research in Reading 32, 309326.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoover, M. L. & Dwivedi, V. D. (1998). Syntactic processing by skilled bilinguals. Language Learning 48, 129.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoover, W. A. & Gough, P. B. (1990). The simple view of reading. Reading and Writing 2, 127160.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horiba, Y., van den Broek, P. & Fletcher, C. (1993). Second language readers’ memory for narrative texts: Evidence for structure-preserving top-down processing. Language Learning 43, 345372.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hu, H. M. & Nassaji, H. (2012). Ease of inferencing, learner inferential strategies, and their relationship with the retention of word meanings inferred from context. Canadian Modern Language Review 68, 5477.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hulme, C., Snowling, M., Caravolas, M. & Carroll, J. (2005). Phonological skills are (probably) one cause of success in learning to read: A comment on Castles and Coltheart. Scientific Studies of Reading 9, 351365.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hyltenstam, K. (1988). Lexical characteristics of near-native second-language learners of Swedish. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 9, 6784.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hyona, J. & Lindeman, J. (1994). Syntactic context effects on word recognition: A developmental study. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 35, 2737.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jackson, N. E. (2005). Are university students’ component reading skills related to their text comprehension and academic achievement? Learning and Individual Differences 15, 113139.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jared, D. & Seidenberg, M. S. (1991). Does word identification proceed from spelling to sound to meaning? Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 120, 358394.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jenkins, J., Matlock, B. & Slocum, T. (1989). Two approaches to vocabulary instruction: The teaching of individual word meanings and practice in deriving word meaning from context. Reading Research Quarterly 24, 215235.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Just, M. A. & Carpenter, P. A. (1987). The psychology of reading and language comprehension. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.Google Scholar
Katz, L. & Frost, R. (1992). Reading in different orthographies: The orthographic depth hypothesis. In Frost, R. & Katz, L. (eds.), Orthography, phonology, morphology, and meaning. Amsterdam: New Holland, 6784.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kendeou, P., Broek, P., White, M. J. & Lynch, J. S. (2009). Predicting reading comprehension in early elementary school: The independent contributions of oral language and decoding skills. Journal of Educational Psychology 101, 765778.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kieffer, M. & Lesaux, N. (2008). The role of derivational morphology in the reading comprehension of Spanish-speaking English language learners. Reading and Writing 21, 783804.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, D., Kim, W. & Lee, K. (2007). The relationship between phonological awareness and early reading for first grade Korean language learners with reading difficulties. Asia Pacific Education Review 8, 426434.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirby, J., Deacon, S., Bowers, P., Izenberg, L., Wade-Woolley, L. & Parrila, R. (2012). Children's morphological awareness and reading ability. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal 25, 389410.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koda, K. (1988). Cognitive process in second language reading: Transfer of L1 reading skills and strategies. Second Language Research 4, 133156.Google Scholar
Koda, K. (1990). The use of L1 reading strategies in L2 reading. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 12, 393410.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koda, K. (1992). The effects of lower-level processing skills on FL reading performance: Implications for instruction. The Modern Language Journal 76, 502512.Google Scholar
Koda, K. (2005). Insights into second language reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuhn, M. (2004). Helping students become accurate, expressive readers: Fluency instruction for small groups. The Reading Teacher 58, 338344.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuhn, M. & Stahl, S. A. (2003). Fluency: A review of developmental and remedial practices. Journal of Educational Psychology 95, 321.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
LaBerge, D. & Samuels, S. (1974). Toward a theory of automatic information processing in reading. Cognitive Psychology 6, 293323.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Landi, N. (2010). An examination of the relationship between reading comprehension, higher-level and lower-level reading sub-skills in adults. Reading and Writing 23, 701717.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lesaux, N. & Siegel, L. (2003). The development of reading in children who speak English as a second language. Developmental Psychology 39, 10051019.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liu, Y. T. (2009). Attainability of a native-like lexical processing system in adult second language acquisition: A study of advanced L2 Chinese learners. Language and Linguistics 10, 489520.Google Scholar
Macalister, J. (2010). Speed reading courses and their effect on reading authentic texts: A preliminary investigation. Reading in a Foreign Language 22, 104116.Google Scholar
Massaro, D. W. & Sanocki, T. (1993). Visual information processing in reading. In Willows, D. M., Kruk, R. S. & Corcos, E. (eds.), Visual processes in reading and reading disabilities. Hillsdale, NJ: Laurence Erlbaum, 139161.Google Scholar
McBride-Chang, C. (2004). Children's literacy development. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
McClelland, J. L. (1988). Connectionist models and psychological evidence. Journal of Memory and Language 27, 107123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McLeod, B. & McLaughlin, B. (1986). Restructuring or automaticity? Reading in a second language. Language Learning 36, 109123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McLeod, P., Plaut, D. C. & Shallice, T. (2001). Connectionist modelling of word recognition. Synthese 129, 173183.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mori, Y. (1998). Effects of first language and phonological accessibility on kanji recognition. The Modern Language Journal 82, 6982.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muljani, D., Koda, K. & Moates, D. (1998). The development of word recognition in a second language. Applied Psycholinguistics 19, 99113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muter, V. & Diethelm, K. (2001). The contribution of phonological skills and letter knowledge to early reading development in a multilingual population. Language Learning 51, 187219.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nagy, W. (1997). On the role of context in first- and second-language vocabulary learning. In Schmidt, N. & McCarthy, M. (eds.), Vocabulary: Description, acquisition and pedagogy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 6483.Google Scholar
Nagy, W., Anderson, R. C. & Herman, P. A. (1987). Learning word meanings from context during normal reading. American Educational Research Journal 24, 237270.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nakagawa, A. (1994). Visual and semantic processing in reading kanji. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance 20, 864875.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nassaji, H. (2002). Schema theory and knowledge-based processes in second language reading comprehension: A need for alternative perspectives. Language Learning 52, 439481.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nassaji, H. (2003a). Higher-level and lower-level text processing skills in advanced ESL reading comprehension. The Modern Language Journal 87, 261276.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nassaji, H. (2003b). L2 vocabulary learning from context: Strategies, knowledge sources, and their relationship with success in L2 lexical inferencing. TESOL Quarterly 37, 645670.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nassaji, H. (2004). The relationship between depth of vocabulary knowledge and L2 learners’ lexical inferencing strategy use and success. Canadian Modern Language Review 61, 107134.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nassaji, H. (2011). Issues in second-language reading: Implications for acquistion and instruction. Reading Research Quarterly 46, 173184.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nassaji, H. & Geva, E. (1999). The contribution of phonological and orthographic processing skills to adult ESL reading: Evidence from native speakers of Farsi. Applied Psycholinguistics 20, 241267.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Netten, A., Droop, M. & Verhoeven, L. (2011). Predictors of reading literacy for first and second language learners. Reading and Writing 24, 413425.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paap, K. R., Noel, R. W. & Johansen, L. S. (1992). Dual-route models of print to sound: Red herrings and real horses. In Frost, R. & Katz, L. (eds.), Advances in psychology: Orthography, phonology, morphology, and meaning. Amsterdam: North-Holland, 293318.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pasquarella, A., Chen, X., Lam, K., Luo, Y. C. & Ramirez, G. (2011). Cross-language transfer of morphological awareness in Chinese-English bilinguals. Journal of Research in Reading 34, 2342.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perfetti, C. A. (1985). Reading ability. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Perfetti, C. A. (2007). Reading ability: Lexical quality to comprehension. Scientific Studies of Reading 11, 357383.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perfetti, C. A. & Hart, L. (2001). The lexical basis of comprehension skill. In Gorfien, D. S. (ed.), On the consequences of meaning selection: Perspectives on resolving lexical ambiguity. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 6786.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perfetti, C. A. & Lesgold, A. M. (1977). Discourse comprehension and sources of individual differences. In Just, M. A. & Carpenter, P. A. (eds.), Cognitive processes in comprehension. Hillsdale, NJ: Laurence Erlbaum, 141183.Google Scholar
Perfetti, C. A. & Roth, S. F. (1981). Some of the interactive processes in reading and their role in reading skill. In Lesgold, A. M. & Perfetti, C. A. (eds.), Interactive processes in reading. Hillsdale, NJ: Laurence Erlbaum, 269298.Google Scholar
Perfetti, C. A. & Zhang, S. (1991). Phonological processes in reading Chinese characters. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 17, 633643.Google Scholar
Plaut, D. C. (2005). Connectionist approaches to reading. In Snowling, M. & Hulme, C. (eds.), The science of reading. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2438.Google Scholar
Plaut, D. C., McClelland, J. L. & Seidenberg, M. S. (1995). Reading exception words and pseudowords: Are two routes really necessary? In J. P. Levy, D. Bairaktaris, J. A. Bullinaria & P. Cairns (eds.), Connectionist models of memory and language, 145159.Google Scholar
Rayner, K. (1998). Eye movements in reading and information processing: 20 years of research. Psychological Bulletin 124, 372422.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rayner, K. & Pollatsek, A. (1989). The psychology of reading. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.Google ScholarPubMed
Rayner, K. & Pollatsek, A. (2006). Eye-movement control in reading. In Traxler, M. & Gernsbacher, M. A. (eds.), Handbook of psycholinguistics (2nd edn). San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 613657.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reichle, E. D., Pollatsek, A., Fisher, D. L. & Rayner, K. (1998). Toward a model of eye movement control in reading. Psychological Review 105, 125.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reichle, E. D., Rayner, K. & Pollatsek, A. (2003). The E-Z reader model of eye-movement control in reading: Comparisons to other models. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 26, 445476.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rizzardi, M. C. (1980). Reader and text in comprehension. In Cortese, G. (ed.), Reading in a foreign language. Milan: Franco Angeli, 449458.Google Scholar
Roberts, T. A., Christo, C. & Sheflebine, J. A. (2011). Word recognition. In Kamil, M., Pearson, P. D., Moje, E. & Afferbach, P. (eds.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. IV). New York: Routledge, 226258.Google Scholar
Rumelhart, D. E. (1980). Schemata: The building blocks of cognition. In Spiro, R. J., Bruce, B. C. & Brewer, W. F. (eds.), Theoretical issues in reading comprehension. Hillsdale, NJ: Laurence Erlbaum, 3358.Google Scholar
Russak, S. & Saiegh-Haddad, E. (2011). Phonological awareness in Hebrew (L1) and English (L2) in normal and disabled readers. Reading and Writing 24, 427442.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saiegh-Haddad, E. & Geva, E. (2008). Morphological awareness, phonological awareness, and reading in English-Arabic bilingual children. Reading and Writing 21, 481504.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schatz, E. K. & Baldwin, R. S. (1986). Context clues are unreliable predictors of word meanings. Reading Research Quarterly 21, 439453.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schiff, R. & Calif, S. (2007). Role of phonological and morphological awareness in L2 oral word reading. Language Learning 57, 271298.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schotter, E. R. & Rayner, K. (2012). Eye movement and word recognition during reading. In Adelman, J. S. (ed.), Visual word recognition: Meaning and context, individuals and development (Vol. 2). London: Psychology Press, 73101.Google Scholar
Schwantes, M., Boesl, L. & Ritz, G. (1980). Children's use of context in word recognition: A psycholinguistic guessing game. Child Development 51, 730738.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Segalowitz, N. & Hébert, M. (1990). Phonological recoding in the first and second language reading of skilled bilinguals. Language Learning 40, 503538.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Segalowitz, N. & Segalowitz, S. J. (1993). Skilled performance, practice, and the differentiation of speed-up from automatization effects: Evidence from second language word recognition. Applied Psycholinguistics 14, 369385.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Segalowitz, N., Watson, V. & Segalowitz, S. (1995). Vocabulary skill: Single-case assessment of automaticity of word recognition in a timed lexical decision task. Second Language Research 11, 121136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seidenberg, M. S. (1992). Beyond orthographic depth in reading: Equitable division of labor. In Frost, R. & Katz, L. (eds.), Orthography, phonology, morphology and meaning. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 85118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seidenberg, M. S. (2005). Connectionist models of word reading. Current Directions in Psychological Science 14, 238242.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seidenberg, M. S., Waters, G. S., Sanders, M. & Langer, P. (1984). Pre- and postlexical loci of contextual effects on word recognition. Memory & Cognition 12, 315328.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shankweiler, D., Lundquist, E., Dreyer, L. G. & Dickinson, C. C. (1996). Reading and spelling difficulties in high school students: Causes and consequences. Reading and Writing 8, 267294.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Share, D. L. (1995). Phonological recoding and self-teaching: Sine qua non of reading acquisition. Cognition 55, 151218.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Share, D. L. & Stanovich, K. E. (1995). Cognitive processes in early reading development: Accommodating individual differences into a model of acquisition. Issues in Education: Contributions from Educational Psychology 1, 157.Google Scholar
Shiffrin, R. & Schneider, W. (1977). Controlled and automatic human information processing: Perceptual learning, automatic, attending and a general theory. Psychological Review 84, 127190.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shiotsu, T. (2009). Reading ability and components of word recognition speed: The case of L1-Japanese EFL learners. In Han, Z. & Anderson, N. J. (eds.), Second language reading research and instruction: Crossing the boundaries. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1539.Google Scholar
Siegel, L. & Ryan, E. (1988). Development of grammatical-sensitivity, phonological, and short-term memory skills in normally achieving and learning disabled children. Developmental Psychology 24, 2837.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, F. (1994). Understanding reading: A psycholinguistic analysis of reading and learning to read. Hillsdale, NJ: Laurence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Stanovich, K. E. (1980). Toward an interactive-compensatory model of individual differences in the development of reading fluency. Reading Research Quarterly 16, 3271.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stanovich, K. E. (1996). Word recognition: Changing perspectives. In Barr, R., Kamil, M. L. & Pearson, P. D. (eds.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. 2). Mahwah NJ: Laurence Erlbaum, 418452.Google Scholar
Stanovich, K. E. (2000). Progress in understanding reading: Scientific foundations and new frontiers. New York: The Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Stanovich, K. E. & Siegel, L. (1994). Phenotypic performance profile of children with reading disabilities: A regression-based test of the phonological-core variable-difference model. Journal of Educational Psychology 86, 24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stanovich, K. E. & West, R. F. (1983). On priming by a sentence context. Journal of Experimental Psychology. General 112, 136.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stanovich, K. E. & West, R. F. (1989). Exposure to print and orthographic processing. Reading Research Quarterly 24, 402433.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stanovich, K. E., West, R. F. & Cunningham, A. E. (1991). Beyond phonological processes: Print exposure and orthographic processing. In Brady, S. A. & Shankweiler, D. P. (eds.), Phonological processes in literacy. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 219235.Google Scholar
Sun-Alperin, M. K. & Wang, M. (2011). Cross-language transfer of phonological and orthographic processing skills from Spanish L1 to English L2. Reading and Writing 24, 591614.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taguchi, E. (1999). The effects of repeated readings on the development of lower identification skills of FL readers. Reading in a Foreign Language 11, 97119.Google Scholar
Taguchi, E. & Gorsuch, G. (2010). Developing reading fluency and comprehension using repeated reading: Evidence from longitudinal student reports. Language Teaching Research 14, 2759.Google Scholar
Tan, L. H. & Perfetti, C. A. (1998). Phonological codes as early sources of constraint in Chinese word identification: A review of current discoveries and theoretical accounts. Reading and Writing 10, 165200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turvey, M., Feldman, L. B. & Lukatela, G. (1984). The Serbo-Croatian orthography constrains the reader to a phonologically analytic strategy. In Henderson, L. (ed.), Orthographies and reading: Perspectives from cognitive psychology, neuropsychology, and linguistics. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 8190.Google Scholar
Van Orden, G. C. & Kloos, H. (2005). The question of phonology and reading. In Snowling, M. S. & Hulme, C. (eds.), The science of reading: A handbook. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 6178.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verhoeven, L. (1991). Acquisition of biliteracy. AILA Review 8, 6174.Google Scholar
Verhoeven, L. (2000). Components in early second language reading and spelling. Scientific Studies of Reading 4, 313330.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verhoeven, L. (2007). Early bilingualism, language transfer, and phonological awareness. Applied Psycholinguistics 28, 425439.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verhoeven, L. (2011). Second language reading acquisition. In Kamil, M., Pearson, P. D., Moje, E. & Afferbach, P. (eds.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. IV). New York: Routledge, 661683.Google Scholar
Verhoeven, L. & Perfetti, C. A. (2011). Morphological processing in reading acquisition: A cross-linguistic perspective. Applied Psycholinguistics 32, 457466.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verhoeven, L. & van, J. Leeuwe (2008). Prediction of the development of reading comprehension: A longitudinal study. Applied Cognitive Psychology 22, 407423.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verhoeven, L. & van Leeuwe, J. (2009). Modeling the growth of word-decoding skills: Evidence from Dutch. Scientific Studies of Reading 13, 205223.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wade-Woolley, L. & Geva, E. (1999). Processing inflected morphology in second language word recognition: Russian-speakers and English-speakers read Hebrew. Reading and Writing 11, 321343.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wagner, R. K. & Barker, T. A. (1994). The development of orthographic processing ability. In Berninger, V. W. (ed.), The varieties of orthographic knowledge I: Theoretical and developmental issues. Dordrecht: Kluwer, 243276.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wagner, R. K. & Torgesen, J. K. (1987). The nature of phonological processing and its causal role in the acquisition of reading skills. Psychological Bulletin 101, 192212.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wagner, R. K., Torgesen, J. K. & Rashotte, C. A. (1994). Development of reading-related phonological processing abilities: New evidence of bidirectional causality from a latent variable longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology 30, 7387.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walter, C. (2008). Phonology in second language reading: Not an optional extra. TESOL Quarterly 42, 455–455.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wang, M. & Geva, E. (2003). Spelling performance of Chinese children using English as a second language: Lexical and visual-orthographic processes. Applied Psycholinguistics 24, 125.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wang, M. & Koda, K. (2007). Commonalities and differences in word identification skills among learners of English as a second language. Language Learning 57, 201222.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wang, M., Koda, K. & Perfetti, C. A. (2003). Alphabetic and nonalphabetic L1 effects in English word identification: A comparison of Korean and Chinese English L2 learners. Cognition 87, 129149.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
West, R., Stanovich, K., Feeman, D. & Cunningham, A. (1983). The effect of sentence context on word recognition in second- and sixth-grade children. Reading Research Quarterly 19, 615.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wright, B. & Garrett, M. (1984). Lexical decision in sentences: Effects of syntactic structure. Memory & Cognition 12, 3145.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zeelenberg, R., Pecher, D., Shiffrin, M. & Raaijmakers, W. (2003). Semantic context effects and priming in word association. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 10, 653660.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ziegler, J. & Goswami, U. (2005). Reading acquisition, developmental dyslexia, and skilled reading across languages: A psycholinguistic grain size theory. Psychological Bulletin 131, 329.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed