Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-g8jcs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-25T09:11:52.308Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Exploring a poorly understood variable: An agenda for classroom research on the age factor

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 December 2018

David Singleton
Affiliation:
Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland and University of Pannonia, Veszprém, [email protected]
Simone E. Pfenninger
Affiliation:
University of Salzburg, Salzburg, [email protected]

Abstract

This article is concerned with age in second language learning. It steers well clear, however, of the well-worn issue of maturational constraints and the intractable problems of locating their consensual offset point and finding indisputable evidence for or against them. Instead we propose something completely different in our agenda for age-related research: a programme on some poorly understood non-maturational dimensions of the age factor which will stand some chance of yielding results unlikely to become entangled in theoretical controversy. In other words, the results will, we think, be immediately usable and useful. The topics included in our outlined agenda are: (1) age effects in various dimensions of language teaching and learning (in relation to bilingualism and biliteracy, to different target languages and to Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL); (2) what can be observed in respect of second language (L2) learning in the third age; (3) an ecological perspective on age in classroom L2 research methodology; and (4) an exploration of the attitudes of teachers of different-aged L2 learners.

Type
Thinking Allowed
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Al Darwish, S. (2017). Teachers’ attitude toward a foreign language: Factors affecting the target language teaching process. International Journal of English Language Teaching 5.6, 110.Google Scholar
Bak, T. H., Nissan, J. J., Allerhand, M. M. & Deary, I. J. (2014). Does bilingualism influence cognitive aging? Annals of Neurology 75.6, 959963.Google Scholar
Bak, T. H., Long, M. R., Vega-Mendoza, M. & Sorace, A. (2016). Novelty, challenge, and practice: The impact of intensive language learning on attentional functions. PloS ONE 11.4, doi:10.1371.journal.pone.0153485.Google Scholar
Bialystok, E. & Craik, F. I. M. (2010). Cognitive and linguistic processing in the bilingual mind. Psychological Science 19.1, 1923.Google Scholar
Bialystok, E., Abutalebi, J., Bak, T. H., Burke, D. M. & Kroll, J. F. (2016). Aging in two languages: Implications for public health. Ageing Research Reviews 27, 5660.Google Scholar
Brändle, M. (1986). Language teaching for the ‘young-old’. Babel 21.1, 1721.Google Scholar
Cao, Y. (2011). Investigating situational willingness to communicate within second language classrooms from an ecological perspective. System 39, 468479.Google Scholar
Cenoz, J., Genesee, F. & Gorter, D. (2014). Critical analysis of CLIL: Taking stock and looking forward. Applied Linguistics 35.3, 243262.Google Scholar
Cook, V. (1995). Multicompetence and effects of age. In Singleton, D. & Lengyel, Z. (eds.), The age factor in second language acquisition. Bristol: Multilingual Matters, 5156.Google Scholar
Cox, J. G. (2017). Explicit instruction, bilingualism, and the older adult learner. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 39, 2958.Google Scholar
Cunnings, I. (2012). An overview of mixed-effects statistical models for second language researchers. Second Language Research 28.3, 369382.Google Scholar
Cunnings, I. & Finlayson, I. (2015). Mixed effects modeling and longitudinal data analysis. In Plonsky, L. (ed.), Advancing quantitative methods in second language research. New York and London: Routledge, 159181.Google Scholar
Dalton-Puffer, C. & Smit, U. (2013). Content-and-language-integrated learning: A research agenda. Language Teaching 46.4, 545559.Google Scholar
De Bot, K., Lowie, W. & Verspoor, M. H. (2011). Introduction. In Verspoor, M. H., de Bot, K. & Wander, L. (eds.), A dynamic approach to second language development. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 14.Google Scholar
DeKeyser, R. (2013). Age effects in second language learning: Stepping stones toward better understanding. Language Learning 63. s1, 5267.Google Scholar
European Commission (2012). Key data on teaching languages at school in Europe in 2012. Retrieved 15 October 2013 from <http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice/documents/key_data_series/143EN_HI.pdf.Google Scholar
Flege, J. E., Yeni-Komshian, G. H. & Liu, S. (1999). Age constraints on second-language acquisition. Journal of Memory and Language 41.1, 78104.Google Scholar
Gass, S. & Lee, J. (2011). Working memory capacity, Stroop interference, and proficiency in second language. In Schmid, M. & Lowie, W. (eds.), From structure to chaos: Twenty years of modeling bilingualism. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 5984.Google Scholar
Giroud, N., Lemke, U., Reich, P., Matthes, K. L. & Meyer, M. (2017). Longitudinal auditory learning facilitates auditory cognition as revealed by microstate analysis. Biological Psychology 123, 2536.Google Scholar
Grosjean, F. (1992). Another view of bilingualism. In Harris, R. (ed.), Cognitive processing in bilinguals. Amsterdam: North-Holland, 5162.Google Scholar
Holmes, J., Gathercole, S. E. & Dunning, D. L. (2009). Adaptive training leads to sustained enhancement of poor working memory in children. Developmental Science 12.4, F9–F15.Google Scholar
INTO (1985). The Irish language in primary education. Dublin: The Irish National Teachers’ Organization.Google Scholar
Johnson, J. S. & Newport, E. L. (1989). Critical period effects in second language learning: The influence of maturational state on the acquisition of English as a second language. Cognitive Psychology 21.1, 6099.Google Scholar
Johnstone, R. (2002). Addressing ‘The Age Factor’: Some implications for language policy. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.Google Scholar
Karanezi, X. (2014). Primary and lower secondary school teachers: Teachers’ attitudes and perceptions about traditional teaching methodologies and modern teaching methodologies according to RWCT. Creative Education 5, 15671575.Google Scholar
Klingberg, T. (2010). Training and plasticity of working memory. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 14.7, 317324.Google Scholar
Kliesch, M., Giroud, N., Pfenninger, S. E. & Meyer, M. (2018). Research on second language acquisition in old adulthood: What we have and what we need. In Gabrys-Barker, D. (ed.), Third age learners of foreign languages. Bristol: Multilingual Matters, 4876.Google Scholar
Knowles, M., Holton, E. & Swanson, R. (2005). The adult learner (6th edn.). Amsterdam: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Knowles, M., Holton, E. & Swanson, R. (2011). The adult learner: The definitive classic in adult education and human resource development (7th edn.). Amsterdam and Boston: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Kozaki, Y. & Ross, R. J. (2011). Contextual dynamics in foreign language learning motivation. Language Learning 61.4, 13281354.Google Scholar
Lapkin, S., Swain, M. & Shapson, S. (1990). French immersion research agenda for the 90s. Canadian Modern Language Review 46.4, 638667.Google Scholar
Larsen-Freeman, D. (2006). The emergence of complexity, fluency and accuracy in the oral and written production of five Chinese learners of English. Applied Linguistics 27, 590616.Google Scholar
Larsen-Freeman, D. & Cameron, L. (2008). Complex systems and applied linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Linck, J. A. & Cunnings, I. (2015). The utility and application of mixed-effects models in second language research. Language Learning 65. s1, 185207.Google Scholar
Linn, A., Bermel, N. & Ferguson, G. (eds.) (2015). Attitudes towards English in Europe. Language and Social Life (2). Berlin: De Gruyter.Google Scholar
Lövden, M., Bäckman, L., Lindenberger, U., Schaefer, S. & Schmiedek, F. (2010). A theoretical framework for the study of adult cognitive plasticity. Psychological Bulletin 136.4, 659676.Google Scholar
McDonald, J. (2000). Grammaticality judgments in a second language: Influences of age of acquisition and native language. Applied Psycholinguistics 21.3, 395423.Google Scholar
MacDonald, M. C. & Christiansen, M. H. (2002). Reassessing working memory: Comment on Just and Carpenter (1992) and Waters and Caplan (1996). Psychological Review 109.1, 3554.Google Scholar
Mackey, A. & Sachs, R. (2012). Older learners in SLA research: A first look at working memory, feedback, and L2 development. Language Learning 62.3, 704740.Google Scholar
Meijer, C., Soriano, V. & Watkins, A. (eds.) (2003). Special needs education in Europe (Thematic publication, European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education, with the contribution of EURYDICE, The Information Network on Education in Europe). Retrieved from https://www.european-agency.org/sites/default/files/special-needs-education-in-europe_sne_europe_en.pdf.Google Scholar
Merriam, S. B. (2001). Andragogy and self-directed learning: Pillars of adult learning theory. In Merriam, S. B. (ed.), The new update on adult learning theory. San Francisco: Jossey-Boss, 313.Google Scholar
Mitchell, R., Myles, F. & Marsden, E. (2013). Second language learning theories (3rd edn.). London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Montrul, S. (2008). Incomplete acquisition in bilingualism: Re-examining the age factor. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Montrul, S. (2012). Is the heritage language like a second language? EUROSLA Yearbook 12, 129.Google Scholar
Moyer, A. (2013). Foreign accent: The phenomenon of non-native speech. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Moyer, A. (2014). What's age got to do with it? Accounting for individual factors in second language accent. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching 4.3, 443464.Google Scholar
Muñoz, C. (ed.) (2012). Intensive exposure experiences in second language learning. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Muñoz, C. & Singleton, D. (2011). A critical review of age-related research on L2 ultimate attainment. Language Teaching 44.1, 135.Google Scholar
Muñoz, C. & Singleton, D. (2018). Age and multilingualism. In Singleton, D. & Aronin, L. (eds.), Twelve lectures in multilingualism. Bristol: Multilingual Matters, 213230.Google Scholar
Laoire, Ó, M. & Singleton, D. (2009). The role of prior knowledge in L3 learning and use. In Aronin, L. & Hufeisen, B. (eds.), The exploration of multilingualism: Development of research on L3, multilingualism and multiple language acquisition. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 79102.Google Scholar
Peltzer-Karpf, A. (2003). The role of neural plasticity in foreign language learning. In Ahrens, R. (ed.), Europäische Sprachenpolitik – European Language Policy. Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag Winter, 369393.Google Scholar
Pfenninger, S. E. & Lendl, J. (2017). Transitional woes: On the impact of L2 input continuity from primary to secondary school. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching 7.3, 443470.Google Scholar
Pfenninger, S. E. & Singleton, D. (2016). Affect trumps age: A person-in-context relational view of age and motivation in SLA. Second Language Research 32.3, 311345.Google Scholar
Pfenninger, S. E. & Singleton, D. (2017). Beyond age effects in instructional L2 learning: Revisiting the age factor. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Pfenninger, S. E. & Singleton, D. (2018). Starting age overshadowed: The primacy of differential environmental and input effects on L2 attainment in an instructional context. Language Learning. doi: 10.1111/lang.12318.Google Scholar
Plonsky, L. (2014). Study quality in quantitative L2 research (1990–2010): A methodological synthesis and call for reform. Modern Language Journal 85, 450470.Google Scholar
Pot, A., Keijzer, M. & de Bot, K. (2018). Enhancing language awareness in migrants’ third age to promote wellbeing. In Gabrys-Barker, D. (ed.), Third age learners of foreign languages. Bristol: Multilingual Matters, 176200.Google Scholar
Ramírez Gómez, D. (2016). Language teaching and the older adult: The significance of experience. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Ramos, S., García, Y. F., Casaponsa, A. & Duñabeitia, J. A. (2017). Does learning a language in the elderly enhance switching ability? Journal of Neurolinguistics 43, 3948.Google Scholar
Raudenbush, S. (1993). A crossed random effects model for unbalanced data with applications in cross-sectional and longitudinal research. Journal of Educational Statistics 18, 321349.Google Scholar
Reitan, R. M. (1992). Trail making test: Manual for administration and scoring. Tucson, AZ: Reitan Neuropsychology Laboratory.Google Scholar
Richards, J. C. & Lockhart, C. (1994). Reflective teaching in second language classrooms. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Ryan, S. & Dörnyei, Z. (2013). The long-term evolution of language motivation and the L2 self. In Berndt, A. (ed.), Fremdsprachen in der Perspektive lebenslangen Lernens. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 89100.Google Scholar
Salthouse, T. & Babcock, T. (1991). Decomposing adult age differences in working memory. Developmental Psychology 27.5, 763776.Google Scholar
Sánchez-Cubillo, I., Periáñez, J. A., Adrover-Roig, D., Rodríguez-Sánchez, J. M., Ríos-Lago, M., Tirapu, J. & Barceló, F. (2009). Construct validity of the Trail Making Test: Role of task-switching, working memory, inhibition/interference control, and visuomotor abilities. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 15, 438450.Google Scholar
Schelleter, C., Sinka, I. & Garman, M. (1997). Latvian/English and German/English bilingual acquisition: New light on universal grammar. In Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Bilingualism. Vigo: University of Vigo, 442452.Google Scholar
Schweizer, T. A., Ware, J., Fischer, C. E., Craik, F. I. M. & Bialystok, E. (2012). Bilingualism as a contributor to cognitive reserve: Evidence from brain atrophy in Alzheimer's disease. Cortex 48.8, 991996.Google Scholar
Singleton, D. (2017). Language aptitude – desirable trait or acquirable attribute? Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching 7.1, 89103.Google Scholar
Strauss, E., Sherman, E. M. S. & Spreen, O. (2006). A compendium of neuropsychological tests: Administration, norms and commentary. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Tragant, E., Marsol, A., Serrano, R. & Llanes, A. (2016). Vocabulary learning at primary school: A comparison of EFL and CLIL. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 19.5, 579591.Google Scholar
Tsukamoto, S. (2001). ESL teachers’ attitudes toward the classroom language. Academic Exchange Quarterly 5.3, 148153.Google Scholar
Van Dijk, M., Verspoor, M. H. & Lowie, W. M. (2011). Variability and DST. In Verspoor, M. H., de Bot, K. & Lowie, W. (eds.), A dynamic approach to second language development: Methods and techniques. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 5584.Google Scholar
Verspoor, M. H., de, K. Bot & Lowie, W. M. (2011). A dynamic approach to second language development. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Ware, C., Damnee, S., Djabelkhir, L., Cristancho, V., Wu, Y.-H., Benovici, J. & Rigaud, A. S. (2017). Maintaining cognitive functioning in healthy seniors with a technology-based foreign language program: A pilot feasibility study. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience 9.42.Google Scholar
Williams, J. N. (2012). Working memory and SLA. In Gass, S. & Mackey, A. (eds.), Handbook of second language acquisition. Oxford: Routledge/Taylor & Francis, 427441.Google Scholar
Wingfield, A., Stine, E., Lahar, C. & Aberdeen, J. (1988). Does the capacity of working memory change with age? Experimental Aging Research 14, 103107.Google Scholar
Winter, B. & Wieling, M. (2016). How to analyze linguistic change using mixed models, Growth Curve Analysis and Generalized Additive Modeling. Journal of Language Evolution, 718. doi: 10.1093/jole/lzv003.Google Scholar
Wode, H. (2004). Frühes Fremdsprachenlernen. Englisch ab Kita und Grundschule: Warum? Wie? Was bringt es? Kiel: Verein für frühe Mehrsprachigkeit an Kindertageseinrichtungen und Schulen FMKS e.V.Google Scholar
Wood, S. (2006). Generalized additive models: An introduction with R. Boca Raton: CRC Press.Google Scholar
Yow, W. Q. & Li, X. (2015). Balanced bilingualism and early age of second language acquisition as the underlying mechanisms of a bilingual executive control advantage: Why variations in bilingual experiences matter. Frontiers in Psychology 6.164, 112.Google Scholar