Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-dsjbd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T07:02:52.389Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

English language education among young learners in East Asia: A review of current research (2004–2014)

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 June 2015

Yuko Goto Butler
Yuko Goto Butler*
Affiliation:
University of Pennsylvania, [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The teaching of foreign languages to young learners is growing in popularity around the world. Research in this field, particularly of English as a second/foreign language education in East Asia, is a relatively new area of empirical inquiry, and it has the potential to make significant contributions to child second-language acquisition (Child-SLA) theory building, research methodologies, and policies in East Asia and beyond. This article reviews relevant peer-reviewed literature on English education among young learners in East Asia (China, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan). I begin by reviewing policy literature to illustrate the social and policy contexts of early English education, identifying major policy-related concerns. Next, I review empirical studies of English learning and teaching, organizing them by their relevance to the previously identified policy concerns. The article concludes with suggestions for future research.

Type
State-of-the-Art Article
Information
Language Teaching , Volume 48 , Issue 3 , July 2015 , pp. 303 - 342
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adachi, R. (2011). The effect of increased English activities on sociocultural attitudes and intercultural communicative attitudes of young Japanese learners. JACET Journal 52, 1–18.Google Scholar
Adachi, R. (2012). A motivational model in Japanese elementary students’ foreign language activities. Language Education and Technology 49, 47–64.Google Scholar
Allen-Tamai, M. (2012). Phonological awareness and word knowledge among young Japanese learners of English. The Journal of Asia TEFL Special Issue, 1–28.Google Scholar
Anthony, J. L. & Francis, D. J. (2005). Development of phonological awareness. Current Directions in Psychological Science 14.5, 255–258.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
August, D. & Shanahan, T. (eds.) (2008). Developing reading and writing in second-language learners. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Bae, J. & Lee, Y.-S. (2010). The validation of parallel test forms: ‘Mountain’ and ‘beach’ pictures series for assessment of language skills. Language Testing 28.2, 155–177.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bae, S.-H. (2013). The pursuit of multilingualism in transnational educational migration: Strategies of linguistic investment among Korean jogi yuhak families in Singapore. Language and Education 27.5, 415–431.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baldauf, R. B., Kaplan, R. B., Kamwangamaly, K. & Bryant, P. (2011). Success or failure of primary second/foreign language programs in Asia: What do the data tell us? Current Issues in Language Planning 12.2, 309–323.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baldauf, R. B., Kaplan, R. B., Kamwangamaly, K. & Bryant, P. (eds.) (2012). Language planning in primary schools in Asia. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Bannard, C. & Lieven, E. (2012). Formulaic language in L1 acquisition. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 32, 3–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Besser, S. & Chik, A. (2014). Narratives of second language identity amongst young English learners in Hong Kong. ELT Journal 68.3, 299–309.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bialystok, E., McBride-Chang, C. & Luk, G. (2005). Bilingualism, language proficiency, and learning to read in two writing systems. Journal of Educational Psychology 97.4, 580–590.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler, Y. G. (2004). What level of English proficiency do elementary school teachers need to attain in order to teach EFL? Case studies from Korea, Taiwan, and Japan. TESOL Quarterly 38.2, 245–278.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler, Y. G. (2005). Comparative perspectives towards communicative activities among elementary school teachers in South Korea, Japan, and Taiwan. Language Teaching Research 9.4, 423–446.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler, Y. G. (2007a). Foreign language education at elementary schools in Japan: Searching for solutions amidst growing diversification. Current Issues in Language Planning 8.2, 129–147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler, Y. G. (2007b). Factors associated with the notion that native speakers are the ideal language teachers: An examination of elementary school teachers in Japan. JALT Journal 29.1, 7–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler, Y. G. (2007c). How are non-native English speaking teachers perceived by young learners? TESOL Quarterly 41.4, 731–755.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler, Y. G. (2009a). The future of English education at primary schools in East Asia: Local and global influences. Primary English Education 15.2, 223–240.Google Scholar
Butler, Y. G. (2009b). Issues in the assessment and evaluation of English language education at the elementary school level: Implications for policies in South Korea, Taiwan, and Japan. Journal of Asia TEFL 6.2, 1–31.Google Scholar
Butler, Y. G. (2009c). How do teachers observe and evaluate elementary school students’ foreign language performance? A case study from South Korea. TESOL Quarterly 43.3, 417–444.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler, Y. G. (2011). The implementation of communicative and task-based language teaching in the Asia-Pacific region. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 31, 36–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler, Y. G. (2014). Parental factors in early English education as a foreign language: A case study in Mainland China. Research Papers in Education 29.4, 410–437.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler, Y. G. (2015a). Parental factors in children's motivation for learning English: A case in China. Research Papers in Education 30.2, 164–191.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler, Y. G. (2015b). Task-based assessment for young learners: The role of teachers in changing cultures. In Thomas, M. & Reinders, H. (eds.), Contemporary task-based language teaching in Asia. London: Bloomsbury, 384–365.Google Scholar
Butler, Y. G. & Iino, M. (2005). Current Japanese reforms in English language education: The 2003 ‘Action Plan’. Language Policy 4.1, 25–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler, Y. G. & Lee, J. (2006). On-task versus off-task self-assessment among Korean elementary school students studying English. The Modern Language Journal 90.4, 506–518.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler, Y. G. & Lee, J. (2010). The effect of self-assessment among young learners. Language Testing 17.1, 1–27.Google Scholar
Butler, Y. G. & Okazawa, E. (2009). Behavioral changes towards extensive reading among young EFL learners. In Ogura, T. & Kobayashi, H. (eds.), Studies in Language Sciences 8. Tokyo: Kuroshio Publishing, 145–161.Google Scholar
Butler, Y. G., Someya, Y. & Fukuhara, E. (2014). Online games for young learners’ foreign language learning. ELT Journal 68.3, 265–275.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler, Y. G. & Takeuchi, A. (2008). Variables that influence elementary school students’ English performance in Japan. Journal of Asia TEFL 5.1, 61–91.Google Scholar
Butler, Y. G. & Zeng, W. (2011). The roles that teachers play in paired-assessments for young learners. In Tsagari, D. & Csepes, I. (eds.), Classroom-based language assessment. Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 77–92.Google Scholar
Butler, Y. G. & Zeng, W. (2013). Young learners’ interactional development in task-based paired-assessment in their first and foreign languages: A case of English learners in China. Education 3-13. doi: 10.1080/03004279.2013.813955.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler, Y. G. & Zeng, W. (2014a). Young learners’ storytelling in their first and foreign languages. In Connor-Linton, J. & Amoroso, L. W. (eds.), Measured language: Quantitative approaches to acquisition, assessment, processing, and variation. Georgetown: Georgetown University Press, 79–94.Google Scholar
Butler, Y. G. & Zeng, W. (2014b). Young foreign language learners’ interactions during task-based paired assessment. Language Assessment Quarterly 11, 45–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carless, D. (2004a). A contextualized examination of target language use in the primary school foreign language classroom. Australian Review of Applied Linguistics 17.1, 104–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carless, D. (2004b). Issues in teachers’ re-interpretation of a task-based innovation in primary schools. TESOL Quarterly 38, 639–662.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carless, D. (2006a). Good practices in team teaching in Japan, South Korea and Hong Kong. System 34, 341–351.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carless, D. (2006b). Collaborative EFL teaching in primary schools. ELT Journal 60.4, 328–335.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carless, D. (2008). Student use of the mother tongue in the task-based classroom. ELT Journal 62.4, 331–338.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carless, D. (2011). From testing to productive student learning: Implementing formative assessment in Confucian-Heritage settings. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Carless, D. & Lam, R. (2012). The examined life: Perspectives of lower primary school students in Hong Kong. Education 3-13. doi: 10.1080/03004279.2012.689988CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carreira, J. M. (2006). Motivation for learning English as a foreign language in Japanese elementary schools. JALT Journal 28.2, 135–158.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carreira, J. M. (2011). Relationship between motivation for learning EFL and intrinsic motivation for learning in general among Japanese elementary school students. System 39, 90–102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carreira, J. M. (2012a). Motivational orientations and psychological needs in EFL learning among elementary school students in Japan. System 40, 191–202.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carreira, J. M. (2012b). Affective factors contributing to intrinsic motivation for learning English among elementary school students in Japan. In Muller, T., Herder, S., Adamson, J. & Broan, P. S. (eds.), Innovating EFL teaching in Asia. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 196–203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chan, D. Y. & Wu, G. (2004). A study of foreign language anxiety of EFL elementary school students in Taipei County. Journal of National Taipei Teachers College 17.2, 287–320.Google Scholar
Chan, Y. (2008). Elementary school EFL teachers’ beliefs and practice of multiple assessments. Reflections on English Language Teaching 7.1, 37–62.Google Scholar
Chen, A. (2011). Parents’ perspectives on the effects of the primary EFL education policy in Taiwan. Current Issues in Language Planning 12.2, 205–224.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, C. W. & Cheng, Y. (2010). A case study on foreign English teachers’ challenges in Taiwanese elementary schools. System 38, 41–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, I. W. & Hsieh, J. J. (2011). English language in Taiwan: An examination of its use in society and education in schools. In Feng, A. (ed.), English language education across greater China. Bristol: Multilingual Matters, 70–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cheng, L. (2012). English immersion schools in China: Evidence from students and teachers. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 33.4, 379–391.Google Scholar
Cheng, L. Y. & Curtis, A. (eds.) (2009). English language assessment and the Chinese learner. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Cheng, L., Li, M., Kirby, J. R., Qiang, H. & Wade-Woolley, L. (2010). English language immersion and students’ academic achievement in English, Chinese and mathematics. Evaluation & Research in Education 23.3, 151–169.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chik, A. & Besser, S. (2011). International language test taking among young learners: A Hong Kong case study. Language Assessment Quarterly 8.1, 73–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cho, K.-S. & Choi, D.-S. (2008). Are read-alouds and free reading ‘natural partners’? Knowledge Quest 36.5, 69–73.Google Scholar
Choi, I.-C. (2008). The impact of EFL testing on EFL education in Korea. Language Testing 25.1, 39–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chou, C. (2008). Exploring elementary English teachers’ practical knowledge: A case study of EFL teachers in Taiwan. Asia Pacific Education Review 9.4, 529–541.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chow, B. W., McBride-Chang, C. & Burgess, S. (2005). Phonological processing skills and early reading abilities in Hong Kong Chinese kindergarteners learning to read English as a second language. Journal or Educational Psychology 97.1, 81–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chung, I. & Huang, Y. (2010). ‘English is not easy, but I like it!’: An exploratory study of English learning attitudes amongst elementary school students in Taiwan. Educational Studies 36.4, 441–445.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chung, J.-H. & Lwin, S. M. (2012). Young Korean EFL learners’ use of referring expressions in their oral narratives. The Journal of Asia TEFL Special Issue, 29–60.Google Scholar
Deci, E. L. & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deng, C. & Carless, D. (2009). The communicativeness of activities in a task-based innovation in Guangdong, China. Asian Journal of English Language Teaching 19, 113–134.Google Scholar
Deng, C. & Carless, D. (2010). Examination preparation or effective teaching: Conflicting priorities in the implementation of a pedagogic innovation. Language Assessment Quarterly 7.4, 285–302.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Enever, J. (ed.) (2011). ELLiE: Early language learning in Europe. London: British Council.Google Scholar
Feng, A. (ed.) (2007). Bilingual education in China: Practice, policies, concepts. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feng, A. (2012). Spread of English across Greater China. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 33.4, 363–377.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gao, X., Barkhuizen, G. & Chow, A. (2010). ‘Nowadays, teachers are relatively obedient’: Understanding primary school English teachers’ conceptions of and drives for research in China. Language Teaching Research 15.1, 61–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gao, X. & Chow, A. W. K. (2011). Primary school English teachers’ research engagement. ELT Journal 66.2, 224–232.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gardner, R. C. (1988). The socio-educational model of second language learning assumptions, findings, and issues. Language Learning 38.1, 100–125.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Genesee, F., Lindholm-Leary, K., Saunders, W. M. & Christian, D. (eds.) (2006). Educating English language learners: A synthesis of research evidence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hashimoto, K. (2011). Compulsory ‘foreign language activities’ in Japanese primary schools. Current Issues in Language Planning 12.2, 167–184.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
He, A. E. (2011). Education decentralization: A review of popular discourse on Chinese-English bilingual education. Asia Pacific Journal of Education 31.1, 91–105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hidaka, S., Shibata, H., Kurihara, M., Tanaka, A., Konno, A., Maruyama, S., Gyoba, J., Hagiwara, H. & Koizumi, M. (2012). Effect of second language exposure on brain activity for language processing among preschoolers. Neuroscience Research 73, 73–79.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hu, C.-F. (2008). Use orthography in L2 auditory word learning: Who benefits? Reading and Writing 21, 823–841.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hu, C.-F. & Schuele, C. M. (2005). Learning nonnative names: The effect of poor native phonological awareness. Applied Psycholinguistics 26, 343–362.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hu, G. (2009). The craze for English-medium education in China: Driving forces and looming consequences. English Today 25.4, 47–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hu, G. & McKay, S. L. (2012). English language education in East Asia: Some recent developments. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 33.4, 345–362.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hu, Y. (2008). China's English language policy for primary schools. World Englishes 27.3/4, 516–534.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huang, K.-M. (2011). Motivating lessons: A classroom-oriented investigation of the effects of content-based instruction on EFL young learners’ motivated behaviours and classroom verbal interaction. System 39, 186–201.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huang, S. & Yeoh, B. S. A. (2005). Transnational families and their children's education: China's study mothers in Singapore. Global Networks 5.4, 379–400.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hwang, E. (2006). Assessment practices in primary English programs. Primary English Education 12.2, 157–193.Google Scholar
Im, K. (2009). An analysis on the application of CD-ROMs for English teaching in Korean elementary schools. Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning 12.3, 39–66.Google Scholar
Ionin, T. & Wexler, K. (2002). Why is ‘is’ easier than ‘-s? Acquisition of tense/agreement morphology by child second language learners of English. Second Language Research 18.2, 95–136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jeon, M. (2012). English immersion and educational inequality in South Korea. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 33.4, 395–408.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jeon, E. & Shin, Y. (2011). Receptive and productive vocabulary learning using a word list in L2. Primary English Education 17.1, 395–416.Google Scholar
Jin, L., Liang, X., Jiang, C., Zhang, J., Yuan, Y. & Xie, Q. (2014). Studying he motivations of Chinese young EFL learners through metaphor analysis. ELT Journal 68.3, 286–298.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Joo, S. (2008). English education and teacher education in South Korea. Journal of Education for Teaching 34.4, 371–381.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kajiro, T. (2007). Does English instruction before junior high school affect development of students’ pronunciation skills? ARELE 18, 101–110.Google Scholar
Kang, D.-M. (2008). The classroom language use of a Korean elementary school EFL teacher: Another look at TETE. System 36, 214–226.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kang, H. D. (2012). Primary School English education in Korea: From policy to practice. In Spolsky, B. & Moon, Y. (eds.), Primary school English-language education in Asia: From policy to practice. London: Routledge, 59–82.Google Scholar
Kang, Y. (2012). Singlish or globish? Multiple language ideologies and global identities among Korean educational migrants in Singapore. Journal of Sociolinguistics 16.2, 165–183.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaplan, R. B. & Baldauf, R. B. (2005). Language-in-education policy and planning. In Hinkel, E. (ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1013–1034.Google Scholar
Kim, J.-H. (2010). ‘Downed’ and stuck in Singapore: Lower/middle class South Korean wild geese (Kirogi) children in Singapore.’ In Hannum, E., Park, H. & Butler, Y. G. (eds.), Globalization, demographic change and educational inequality in East Asia (Research in Sociology in Education, vol. 17). London: Emerald, 207–311.Google Scholar
Kim, J.-R. (2013). What makes a difference on the effects of extensive reading programs in Korean elementary classrooms: A meta-analytical approach. The Journal of Asia TEFL Special issue, 61–87.Google Scholar
Kim, J.-S. (2007). An analysis of oral reading errors of EFL primary school students. Primary English Education 13.2, 287–320.Google Scholar
Kim, K.-H. (2009). A study on the EFL young learners’ error revision processes in written instruction. Primary English 15.1, 215–248.Google Scholar
Kim, T.-Y. (2011). Korean elementary school students’ English learning demotivation: A comparative survey study. Asia Pacific Education Review 12.1, 1–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, T.-Y. & Seo, H.-S. (2012). Elementary school students’ foreign language learning demotivation: A mixed methods study of Korean EFL context. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher 21.1, 160–171.Google Scholar
Kim, Y. & Kellogg, D. (2007). Rules out of roles: Differences in play language and their developmental significance. Applied Linguistics 28.1, 25–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knell, E., Haiyan, Q., Miao, P., Yanping, C., Siegel, L., Lin, Z. & Wei, Z. (2007). Early English immersion and literacy in Xi’an, China. The Modern Language Journal 91.3, 395–417.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koda, K. & Zehler, A. M. (eds.) (2008). Learning to read across languages: Cross-linguistic relationships in first- and second-language literacy development. New York: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koyama, T. & Yukawa, E. (2012). Validity of the YTK speaking test: Construct validation of a performance-based English speaking test for elementary school students in Japan. Bulletin of Kyoto Notre Dame University 42, 25–42.Google Scholar
Kunimoto, K. (2006). What variables does the perceived competence of young English learners consist of? A comparison between 4th and 5th graders. Annual Review of English Language Education in Japan 17, 211–220.Google Scholar
Kuo, L. & Anderson, R. C. (2010). Beyond cross-language transfer: Reconceptualizing the impact of early bilingualism on phonological awareness. Scientific Studies of Reading 14.4, 365–385.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kwon, O. (2006). Impacts and effects of ten years of elementary school English education in Korea. GTEC 2006 Report, 78–85.Google Scholar
Kym, I. (2006). The effect of focus-on-form on the acquisition of English grammatical morphemes by a Korean EFL learner. Primary English Education 12.2, 317–336.Google Scholar
Lai, Y.-S., Tsai, H.-H. & Yu, P.-T. (2009). A multimedia English learning system using HMMs to improve phonemic awareness for English learners. Educational Technology & Society 12.3, 266–281.Google Scholar
Lakshmanan, U. (2009). Child second language acquisition. In Ritchie, C. W. & Bhatia, T. K. (eds.), The new handbook of second language acquisition. Bingley, UK: Emerald, 377–399.Google Scholar
Lan, Y.-J., Sung, Y.-T. & Chang, K.-E. (2007). A mobile-device-supported peer-assisted learning system for collaborative early EFL reading. Language Learning & Technology 11.3, 130–151.Google Scholar
Larson-Hall, J. (2008). Weighing the benefits of studying a foreign language at a younger starting age in a minimal input situation. Second Language Research 24.1, 35–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, I. (2006). On the development of a Korean elementary school student's oral English vocabulary. Studies in English Education 11.2, 129–146.Google Scholar
Lee, I. (2013). Development of a Korean child learner's English grammar: Evidence from her narrative description. Primary English Education 19.3, 137–166.Google Scholar
Lee, N. & Huang, Y. Y. (2004). To be or not to be: The variable use of the verb be in the interlanguage of Hong Kong Chinese children. RELC Journal 35.2, 211–228.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, Y.-H. & Lee, H.-K. (2012). Effects of input enhancement techniques on word learning of Korean elementary learners. Primary English Education 18.3, 381–398.Google Scholar
Leong, C. K., Hau, K. T., Cheng, P. W. & Tan, L. H. (2005). Exploring two-wave reciprocal structural relations among orthographic knowledge, phonological sensitivity, and reading and spelling of English words by Chinese students. Journal of Educational Psychology 97.4, 591–600.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leong, C. K., Tan, L. H., Cheng, P. W. & Hau, K. T. (2005). Learning to read and spell English words by Chinese students. Scientific Studies of Reading 9, 63–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li, M. (2011). Shaping socialist ideology through language education policy for primary schools in the PRC. Current Issues in Language Planning 12.2, 185–204.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li, M., Cheng, L. & Kirby, J. R. (2012a). Phonological awareness and listening comprehension among Chinese English-immersion students. International Education 41.2, 46–65.Google Scholar
Li, M., Kirby, J. R., Cheng, L., Wade-Woolley, L. & Qiang, H. (2012b). Cognitive predictors of English reading achievement in Chinese English-immersion students. Reading Psychology 33, 423–447.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li., M., Kirby, J. R. & Georgiou, G. K. (2011). Rapid naming speed components and reading comprehension in bilingual children. Journal of Research in Reading 34.1, 6–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lin, Z. (2010). Interactive dynamic assessment with children learning EFL in kindergarten. Early Childhood Education Journal 37, 279–287.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luo, W.-H. (2007). A study of native English-speaking teacher programs in elementary schools in Taiwan. Asia Pacific Education Review 8.2, 311–320.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ma, X. & Ma, X. (2013). Formulaic language use by fluent young Chinese EFL learners. The Journal of Asia TEFL Special Issues, 89–113.Google Scholar
Macaro, E. & Lee, J. H. (2013). Teacher language background, codeswitching, and English-only instruction: Does age make a difference to learners’ attitudes? TESOL Quarterly 47, 717–742.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacIntyre, P. D., Baker, S. C., Clément, R. & Conrod, S. (2001). Willingness to communicate, social support, and language-learning orientations of immersion students. Studies on Second Language Acquisition 23, 369–388.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muñoz, C. (ed.) (2006). Age and the rate of foreign language learning. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murphy, P. K. & Alexander, P. A. (2000). A motivated exploration of motivation terminology. Contemporary Educational Psychology 25, 3–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nakata, Y. (2009). Intrinsic motivation in the EFL school context: A retrospective study of English learning experiences in Japanese elementary schools. The Journal of Asia TEFL 6.4, 263–291.Google Scholar
Nikolov, M. (ed.) (2009). Early learning of modern foreign languages: Processes and outcomes. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Nikolov, M. & Mihaljević Djigunović, J. H. (2011). All shades of every color: An overview of early teaching and learning of foreign languages. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 31, 95–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nishida, R. (2012). A longitudinal study of motivation, interest, can-do and willingness to communicate in foreign language activities among Japanese fifth-grade students. Language Education & Technology 49, 23–45.Google Scholar
Nishida, R. & Yashima, T. (2009). An investigation of factors affecting willingness to communicate and interest in foreign countries among young learners. Language Education & Technology 46, 151–170.Google Scholar
Nishida, R. & Yashima, T. (2010). Classroom interactions of teachers and elementary school pupils as observed during a musical project in a Japanese elementary school. System 38, 480–490.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oga-Baldwin, W. L. Q. & Nakata, Y. (2013). Native vs. non-native teachers: Who is the real model for Japanese elementary school pupils? Journal of Asia TEFL 10.2, 91–113.Google Scholar
Ojima, S., Nakamura, N., Matsuba-Kurita, H., Hoshino, T. & Hagiwara, H. (2010). Neural correlates of foreign-language learning in childhood: A 3-year longitudinal ERP study. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 23.1, 183–199.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ojima, S., Matsuba-Kurita, H., Nakamura, N., Hoshino, T. & Hagiwara, H. (2011). Age and amount of exposure to a foreign language during childhood: Behavioral and ERP data on the semantic comprehension of spoken English by Japanese children. Neuroscience Research 70, 197–205.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oladejo, J. (2006). Parents’ attitudes towards bilingual education policy in Taiwan. Bilingual Research Journal 30.1, 147–170.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paradis, J. (2007). Second language acquisition in childhood. In Hoff, E. & Shatz, M. (eds.), Blackwell handbook of language development. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 387–405.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Park, J.-K. (2009). ‘English fever’ in South Korea: its history and symptoms. English Today 25.1, 50–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Park, S.-J. & Abelmann, N. (2004). Class and cosmopolitan striving: Mother's management of English education in South Korea. Anthropological Quarterly 77, 645–672.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peng, J. & Zhang, L. (2009). Chinese primary school students’ use of communication strategies in EFL classrooms. In Nikolov, M. (ed.), The age factor and early language learning. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 337–350.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Philp, J., Oliver, R. & Mackey, A. (2008). Second language acquisition and the younger learner. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pinter, A., Kuchah, K. & Smith, R. (2013). Researching with children. ELT Journal 67.4, 484–487.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Qian, X., Tian, G. & Wang, Q. (2009). Codeswitching in the primary EFL classroom in China: Two case studies. System 37, 719–730.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rhee, H.-J. (2012). The effects of recasts on the acquisition of past tense. Primary English Education 18.1, 339–363.Google Scholar
Shiga, M. (2008). Development of primary English education and teacher training in Korea. Journal of Education for Teaching 34.4, 383–396.Google Scholar
Shintani, N. (2011). A comparative study of the effects of input-based and production-based instruction on vocabulary acquisition by young EFL learners. Language Teaching Research 15.2, 137–158.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shintani, N. (2013). The effect of focus on form and focus on forms instruction on the acquisition of productive knowledge of L2 vocabulary by young beginning-level learners. TESOL Quarterly 47.1, 36–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shintani, N. & Ellis, R. (2010). The incidental acquisition of English plural ‘–s’ by Japanese children in comprehension-based and production-based lessons: A process-product study. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 32.4, 607–637.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shizuka, T. (2007). Effects of learning English in elementary school days on the proficiency of, and the attitudes towards, the language in high school years. JACET Journal 45, 31–45.Google Scholar
Song, J. (2011). Globalization, children's study abroad, and transnationalism as an emerging context for language learning: A new task for language teacher education. TESOL Quarterly 45.4, 749–758.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Song, J. (2012a). Imagined communities and language socialization practices in transnational space: A case study of two Korean ‘study abroad’ families in the United States. The Modern Language Journal 96.4, 507–524.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Song, J. (2012b). The struggle over class, identity, and language: A case study of South Korean transnational families. Journal of Sociolinguistics 16.2, 201–217.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Song, J.- J. (2011). English as an official language in South Korea: Global English or social malady? Language Problems & Language Planning 35.1, 35–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Song, X. & Cheng, L. (2011). Investigating primary English immersion teachers in China: Background, instructional contexts, professional development, and perceptions. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education 39.2, 97–112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spolsky, B. & Moon, Y. (eds.) (2012). Primary school English-language education in Asia: From policy to practice. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Stein, N. (1988). The development of children's storytelling skills. In Franklin, M. B. & Barten, S. (eds.), Child language: A reader. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 282–297.Google Scholar
Stevenson, H. W. & Stigler, J. W. (1992). The learning gap: Why our schools are failing and what we can learn from Japanese and Chinese education. New York: Touchstone.Google Scholar
Su, Y.-C. (2006). EFL teachers’ perceptions of English language policy at the elementary level in Taiwan. Educational Studies 32.3, 265–283.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sugiura, L., Ojima, S., Matsuba-Kurita, H., Dan, I., Tsuzuki, D., Katura, T. & Hasegawa, H. (2011). Sound to language: Different cortical processing for first and second languages in elementary school children as revealed by a large-scale study using fNIRS. Cerebral Cortex 21, 2374–2393.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Suh, S., Kim, S. W. & Kim, N. J. (2010). Effectiveness of MMORPG-based instruction in elementary English education in Korea. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 26, 370–378.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Takada, T. (2004). The listening proficiency elementary school (ES) and junior high school (JHS) intend to develop: What teachers should know to bridge the gap between ES and JHS programs. ARELE 15, 109–118.Google Scholar
Takahashi, J., Suzuki, Y., Shibata, H., Fukumitsu, Y., Gyoba, J., Hagiwara, H. & Koizumi, M. (2011). Effects of non-native language exposure on the semantic processing of native language in preschool children. Neuroscience Research 69, 246–251.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tobin, J., Wu, D. & Davidson, D. (1989). Preschools in three cultures: Japan, China and the United States. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Tsou, W. (2011). The application of readers theater to FLES (Foreign Language in the Elementary Schools) reading and writing. Foreign Language Annals 44.4, 727–748.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Uematsu, S. (2012). The effect of English learning in elementary school on students’ English language development in junior high school. Journal of Asia TEFL 9.4, 113–133.Google Scholar
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Watanabe, T. (2007). Psychological effects of learning English at elementary school: From a follow-up study at the junior high school level. ARELE 18, 231–240.Google Scholar
Wu, X. (2012). Primary English education in China: Review and reflection. In Spolsky, B. & Moon, Y. (eds.), Primary school English-language education in Asia: From policy to practice. London: Routledge, 1–22.Google Scholar
Xue, G., Dong, Q., Jin, Z., Zhang, L. & Wang, Y. (2004). An fMRI study with semantic access in low proficiency second language learners. NeuroReport 15.5, 791–796.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yi, J.-R. & Kellogg, D. (2006). Beneath higher ground: Vygotsky, Volosinov, and an archaeology of reported speech in primary EFL writing. Language Awareness 15.1, 114–131.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yim, S.-Y. & Yu, Y.-L. (2011). Validating the English learning anxiety scale for primary school students in Korea. English Teaching 66.2, 101–121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yukawa, E., Koyama, T. & Takanashi, T. (2010). What does ‘Let's Talk’ tell us? Elementary school students’ speaking performance variability and its relation to instructional content. JASTEC Journal 29, 1–15.Google Scholar
Zhang, E. Y. & Adamson, B. (2007). Implementing language policy: Lessons from primary school English. In Feng, A. (ed.), Bilingual education in China: Practices, policies and concepts. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters, 166–181.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhang, Y. & Wang, J. (2011). Primary school English language teaching in South China: Past, present and future. In Feng, A. (ed.), English language education across Greater China. Bristol: Multilingual Matters, 151–168.CrossRefGoogle Scholar