Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-hc48f Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T06:18:10.650Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Emergent bilingual students in secondary school: Along the academic language and literacy continuum

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 September 2013

Kate Menken
Kate Menken*
Affiliation:
City University of New York – Queens College & Graduate [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article offers a critical review of research about emergent bilingual students in secondary school, where the academic demands placed upon them are great, and where instruction typically remains steadfast in its monolingualism. I focus on recent scholarship about the diversity within this student population, and center on ‘students with interrupted formal education’ (SIFE, new arrivals who have no home language literacy skills or are at the beginning stages of literacy learning) and ‘long-term English language learners’ (LTELLs, primarily educated in their receiving country yet still eligible for language support services). Little has been published about these students, making this a significant area of inquiry. Moreover, both groups are characterized by poor performance and together illustrate the characteristics of secondary students at various points along an academic language and literacy continuum. While existing research provides important information to help us improve secondary schooling for emergent bilinguals, it has also perpetuated deficit views of these students by focusing solely on their perceived academic shortcomings. Grounded in a new body of research in applied linguistics that examines the students’ complex, creative, and dynamic language and literacy practices, I apply a translanguaging lens to critique the positioning of such students as deficient, with implications for research and practice.

Type
State-of-the-Art Article
Information
Language Teaching , Volume 46 , Issue 4 , October 2013 , pp. 438 - 476
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abedi, J. (2004). The no child left behind act and English language learners: Assessment and accountability issues. Educational Researcher 33.1, 4–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abedi, J. & Dietal, R. (2004). Challenges in the no child left behind act for English language learners. CRESST Policy Brief, 7. Los Angeles, CA: National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing.Google Scholar
Arias, B. & Faltis, C. (eds.) (2012). Implementing educational language policy in Arizona: Legal, historical and current practices in SEI. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Artiles, A., Rueda, R., Salazar, J. & Higareda, I. (2005). Within-group diversity in minority disproportionate representation: English language learners in urban school districts. Exceptional Children 71.3, 283–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Artiles, A., Trent, S. & Palmer, J. (2004). Culturally diverse students in special education: Legacies and prospects. In Banks, J. & Banks, C. (eds.), Handbook of research on multicultural education (2nd edn). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 716–735.Google Scholar
Auer, P. (1999). From codeswitching via language mixing to fused lects: Toward a dynamic typology of bilingual speech. International Journal of Bilingualism 3.2, 309–332.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
August, D. & Shanahan, T. (eds.) (2006). Developing literacy in second-language learners: Report of the National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority Children and Youth. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Bailey, A. (2007). Introduction: Teaching and assessing students learning English in school. In Bailey, A. (ed.), The language demands of school: Putting academic English to the test. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1–26.Google Scholar
Baker, C. (2011). Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism (5th edn). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Benesch, S. (2008). Generation 1.5 and its discourses of partiality: A critical analysis. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education 7.2/3, 294–311.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berhanu, G. (2008). Ethnic minority pupils in Swedish schools: Some trends in over-representation of minority pupils in special educational programmes. International Journal of Special Education 23.3, 17–29.Google Scholar
Bernstein, S. (2004). Teaching and learning in Texas: Accountability testing, language, race, and place. Journal of Basic Writing 23.1, 4–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bialystok, E. (2007). Cognitive effects of bilingualism: How linguistic experience leads to cognitive change. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 10.3, 210–223.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blackledge, A. & Creese, A. (2010). Multilingualism: A critical perspective. London: Continuum.Google Scholar
Blommaert, J. (2008). Grassroots literacy: Writing, identity and voice in Central Africa. London: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blommaert, J. (2010). The sociolinguistics of globalization. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boyson, B. & Short, D. (2003). Secondary school newcomer programs in the United States. Research Report 12. Santa Cruz, CA: Center for Research on Education, Diversity & Excellence.Google Scholar
Brown, J., Miller, J. & Mitchell, J. (2006). Interrupted schooling and the acquisition of literacy: Experiences of Sudanese refugees in Victorian secondary schools. Australian Journal of Language and Literacy 29.2, 150–162.Google Scholar
Brutt-Griffler, J. & Varghese, M. (2004). Introduction. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 7.2&3, 93–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Calderón, M. & Minaya-Rowe, L. (2011). Preventing long-term ELs: Transforming schools to meet core standards. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.Google Scholar
Callahan, R. (2006). The intersection of accountability and language: Can reading intervention replace English language development? Bilingual Research Journal 30, 1–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Canagarajah, S. (2011a). Translanguaging in the classroom: Emerging issues for research and pedagogy. Applied Linguistics Review 2, 1–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Canagarajah, S. (2011b). Codemeshing in academic writing: Identifying teachable strategies of translanguaging. The Modern Language Journal 95.3, 401–417.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carrasquillo, A., Kucer, S. & Abrams, R. (2004). Beyond the beginnings: Literacy interventions for upper elementary English language learners. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Cassity, E. & Gow, G. (2005). Making up for lost time: The experiences of southern Sudanese youth refugees in high school. Youth Studies Australia 24.3, 51–55.Google Scholar
Celic, C. & Seltzer, K. (2011). Translanguaging: A CUNY-NYSIEB guide for educators. New York: CUNY-NYSIEB, CUNY Graduate Center. www.nysieb.ws.gc.cuny.edu/publicationsresources/Google Scholar
Cenoz, J. & Gorter, D. (2011a). A holistic approach to multilingual education: Introduction. The Modern Language Journal 95.3, 339–343.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cenoz, J. & Gorter, D. (2011b). Focus on multilingualism: A study of trilingual writing. The Modern Language Journal 95.3, 356–369.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chevalier, J. (2004). Heritage language literacy: Theory and practice. The Heritage Language Journal 2.1, 1–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cloud, N., Genesee, F. & Hamayan, E. (2009). Literacy instruction for English language learners: A teacher's guide to research-based practices. Chicago, IL: Heinemann.Google Scholar
Collier, V. & Thomas, W. (2002). Reforming education policies for English learners means better schools for all. The State Education Standard 3.1, 30–36.Google Scholar
Colombi, M. & Schleppegrell, M. (2002). Theory and practice in the development of advanced literacy. In Schleppegrell, M. & Colombi, M. (eds.), Developing advanced literacy in first and second languages. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1–19.Google Scholar
Constantino, R. & Lavadenz, M. (1993). Trends in bilingual education at the secondary school level. Peabody Journal of Education 69, 82–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cope, B. & Kalantzis, M. (eds.) (2000). Multiliteracies: Literacy learning and the design of social futures. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Council of Europe (2000). Common European framework of reference for languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Language Policy Division. Strasbourg: Author.Google Scholar
Cranitch, M. (2010). Developing language and literacy skills to support refugee students in the transition from primary to secondary school. Australian Journal of Language & Literacy 33.3, 255–267.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crawford, J. (2007). The decline of bilingual education: How to reverse a troubling trend? International Multilingual Research Journal 1.1, 33–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Creese, A. (2004). Bilingual teachers in mainstream secondary school classrooms: Using Turkish for curriculum learning. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 7.2&3, 189–203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Creese, A. & Blackledge, A. (2010). Translanguaging in the bilingual classroom: A pedagogy for learning and teaching? The Modern Language Journal 94.1, 103–115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Creese, A. & Martin, P. (eds.) (2003). Multilingual classroom ecologies: Inter-relationships, interactions and ideologies. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cummins, J. (1981). Age on arrival and immigrant second language learning in Canada: A reassessment. Applied Linguistics 1, 132–149.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cummins, J. (2000). Language, power, and pedagogy: Bilingual children in the crossfire. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cummins, J. (2005). A proposal for action: Strategies for recognizing heritage language competence as a learning resource within the mainstream classroom. The Modern Language Journal 89, 585–592.Google Scholar
Cummins, J. (2008). BICS and CALP: Empirical and theoretical status of the distinction. In Street, B. & Hornberger, N. (eds.), Encyclopedia of language and education: Literacy (vol. 2) (2nd edn). New York: Springer, 71–83.Google Scholar
Dávila, L. (2012). ‘For them it's sink or swim’: Refugee students and the dynamics of migration, and (dis)placement in school. Power and Education 4.2, 139–149.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeCapua, A. & Marshall, H. (2010). Students with limited or interrupted formal education in US classrooms. Urban Review 42.2, 159–173.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeCapua, A., Smathers, W. & Tang, L. (2007). Schooling, interrupted. Educational Leadership 64.6, 40–46.Google Scholar
Dooley, K. & Thangaperumal, P. (2011). Pedagogy and participation: Literacy education for low-literate refugee students of African origin in a Western school system. Language and Education 25.5, 385–397.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dooly, M. & Vallejo, C. (2008). Country report: Spain. Educational policies that address social inequality. EACEA Action 6.1.2. London: IPSE.Google Scholar
Dooly, M., Vallejo, C. with Unamuno, V. (2009). Thematic report: Linguistic minorities. Report of the educational policies that address social inequality (EPASI) program by the Spanish team. Barcelona: Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona.Google Scholar
Edelsky, C. (1982). Writing in a bilingual program: The relation of L1 and L2 texts. TESOL Quarterly 16.2, 211–228.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Faltis, C. & Wolfe, P. (eds.) (1999). So much to say: Adolescents, bilingualism, and ESL in the secondary school. New York: Teachers College Press.Google Scholar
Fang, Z. & Schleppegrell, M. (2008). Reading in secondary content areas: A language-based pedagogy. Ann Arbor, MI: Michigan University Press.Google Scholar
Ferfolja, T. & Vickers, M. (2010). Supporting refugee students in school education in Greater Western Sydney. Critical Studies in Education 51.2, 149–162.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fisher, D. & Frey, N. (2003). Writing instruction for struggling adolescent readers: A gradual release model. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy 46.5, 396–405.Google Scholar
Flores, N. (2012). From nation-states to neoliberalism: Language ideologies and governmentality. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. New York: City University of New York.Google Scholar
Flores, S., Batalova, J. & Fix, M. (2012). The educational trajectories of English language learners in Texas. Washington, DC: Migration Policy Institute.Google Scholar
Forrest, S. (2006). Three foci of an effective high school Generation 1.5 literacy program. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy 50.2, 106–112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freeman, D. & Freeman, Y. (2009). Academic language for English language learners and struggling readers: How to help students succeed across content areas. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.Google Scholar
Freeman, Y. & Freeman, D. with Mercuri, S. (2002). Closing the achievement gap: How to reach limited-formal-schooling and long-term English learners. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.Google Scholar
Gallego, M. A. & Hollingsworth, S. (2000). Introduction: The idea of multiple literacies. In Gallego, M. A. & Hollingsworth, S. (eds.), What counts as literacy? Challenging the school standard. New York: Teachers College Press, 1–26.Google Scholar
Gándara, P. & Baca, G. (2008). NCLB and California's English language learners: The perfect storm. Language Policy 7.3, 201–216.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gándara, P. & Hopkins, M. (eds.) (2010). Forbidden language: English learners and restrictive language policies. New York: Teachers College Press.Google Scholar
Gándara, P., Losen, D., August, D., Uriarte, M., Gómez, M. & Hopkins, M. (2010). Forbidden language: A brief history of US language policy. In P. Gándara & M. Hopkins (eds.), 20–33.Google Scholar
García, G. & Godina, H. (2004). Addressing the literacy needs of adolescent English language learners. In Jetton, T. & Dole, J. (eds.), Research and practice in adolescent literacy. New York: Guilford Press, 304–320.Google Scholar
García, O. (2009). Bilingual education in the 21st century: A global perspective. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.Google Scholar
García, O., Bartlett, L. & Kleifgen, J. (2007). From biliteracy to pluriliteracies. In Auer, P. & Wei, L. (eds.), Handbook of multilingualism and multilingual communication. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 207–228.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
García, O., Flores, N. & Woodley, H. (2012). Transgressing monolingualism and bilingual dualities: Translanguaging pedagogies. In Yiakoumetti, A. (ed.), Harnessing linguistic variation to improve education. Bern: Peter Lang, 45–75.Google Scholar
Gawienowski, M. F. & Holper, K. (2006). A portrait of generation 1.5 students. In Blumenthal, A. (ed.), Perspectives on community college ESL (vol. 2): Students, mission, and advocacy. Alexandria, VA: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, 117–130.Google Scholar
Gee, J. (2000). The New Literacy Studies: From ‘socially situated’ to the work of the social. In Barton, D., Hamilton, M. & Ivanič, R. (eds.), Situated literacies: Reading and writing in context. London: Routledge, 180–196.Google Scholar
Gibbons, P. (2009). English learners, academic literacy, and thinking: Learning in the challenge zone. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.Google Scholar
Goldenberg, C. (2008). Teaching English language learners: What the research does – and does not – say. American Educator Summer 2008, 8–44.Google Scholar
Government Accountability Office (2006). No child left behind act: Assistance from education could help states better measure progress of students with limited English proficiency. Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
Gutiérrez, K. (2008). Developing a sociocritical literacy in the third space. Reading Research Quarterly 43.2, 148–164.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gutiérrez, K., Baquedano-López, P. & Tejeda, C. (1999). Rethinking diversity: Hybridity and hybrid language practices in the third space. Mind, Culture, and Activity: An International Journal 6, 286–303.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gutiérrez, K. & Orellana, M. F. (2006). The ‘problem’ of English learners: Constructing genres of difference. Research in the Teaching of English 40.4, 502–507.Google Scholar
Halliday, M. (1994). An introduction to functional grammar. London: Edward Arnold.Google Scholar
Hammond, J. (2006). High challenge, high support: Integrating language and content instruction for diverse learners in an English literature class. Journal of English for Academic Purposes 5, 269–283.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harklau, L. (2003). Generation 1.5 students and college writing (CAL/ERIC Digest). Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EDOFL0305).Google Scholar
Harklau, L., Losey, K. & Siegal, M. (eds.) (1999). Generation 1.5 meets college composition: Issues in the teaching of writing to US-educated learners of English. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hatoss, A. & Sheely, T. (2009, March). Language maintenance and identity among Sudanese-Australian refugee-background youth. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 30.2, 127–144.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heller, M. (1999). Linguistic minorities and modernity: A sociolinguistic ethnography. London: Longman.Google Scholar
Hornberger, N. (ed.) (2003). Continua of biliteracy: An ecological framework for educational policy, research and practice in multilingual settings. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hornberger, N. (2005). Nichols to NCLB: Local and global perspectives on US language education policy. Working Papers in Education Linguistics 20.2, 1–17.Google Scholar
Hornberger, N. (2013). Biliteracy continuua. In Hawkins, M. (ed.), Framing languages and literacies: Socially situated views and perspectives. New York: Routledge, 149–168.Google Scholar
Hornberger, N. & Link, H. (2012). Translanguaging and transnational literacies in multilingual classrooms: A biliteracy lens. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 15.3, 261–278.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horner, B., Lu, M., Royster, J. & Trimbur, J. (2011). Language difference in writing: Toward a translingual approach. College English 23.3, 299–317.Google Scholar
Issa, T., Allen, K. & Ross, A. (2008). Young people's educational attainment in London's Turkish, Turkish Kurdish and Turkish Cypriot communities. A report for the Mayor of London's Office. London: Institute of Policy Studies in Education, London Metropolitan University.Google Scholar
Jacquemet, M. (2005). Transidiomatic practices: Language and power in the age of globalization. Language & Communication 25, 257–277.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johansson, L., Angst, K., Beer, B., Martin, S., Rebeck, W. & Sibilleau, N. (2001). Canadian language benchmarks 2000: ESL for literacy learners. Ottawa, ON: Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks.Google Scholar
Jørgensen, J. (2008). Poly-lingual languaging around and among children and adolescents. International Journal of Multilingualism 5.3, 161–176.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Joseph, M. & Ramani, E. (2012). ‘Glocalization’: Going beyond the dichotomy of global versus local through additive multilingualism. International Multilingual Research Journal 6.1, 22–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kanu, Y. (2008). Educational needs and barriers for African refugee students in Manitoba. Canadian Journal of Education 31.4, 915–940.Google Scholar
Klein, E. & Martohardjono, G. (2006). Understanding the student with interrupted formal education (SIFE): A study of SIFE skills, needs and achievement. New York: New York City Department of Education.Google Scholar
Kleyn, T., Flores, N. & Menken, K. (forthcoming). Looking holistically in a climate of partiality: Identities of students labeled ‘long-term English language learners’. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education.Google Scholar
Koelsch, N. (2006). Improving literacy outcomes for English language learners in high school: Considerations for states and districts in developing a coherent policy framework. Research brief. Washington, DC: National High School Center.Google Scholar
Krashen, S. & McField, G. (2005). What works? Reviewing the latest evidence on bilingual education. Language Learner 1.2, 7–10, 34.Google Scholar
Lanfranchi, A. & Jenny, G. (2005). Prozesse der Zuweisung von Kindern mit Problemen zu sonderpädagogischen Massnahmen. [Assignment of children with problems to special educational needs provisions.] In Häfeli, K. & Walther-Müller, P. (eds.), Das Wachstum des sonder-pädagogischen Angebots im interkantonalen Vergleich. Luzern: Schweizerische Zentralstelle für Heilpädagogik, 217–278.Google Scholar
Levin, T. & Shohamy, E. (2008). Achievement of immigrant students in mathematics and academic Hebrew in Israeli school: A large-scale evaluation study. Studies in Educational Evaluation 34, 1–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Little, D. (2010). The linguistic and educational integration of children and adolescents from migrant backgrounds. Prepared for the policy forum, ‘The right of learners to quality and equity in education – The role of linguistic and intercultural competences’. Strasbourg: Language Policy Division, Council of Europe.Google Scholar
Lobascher, S. (2011). What are the potential impacts of high-stakes testing on literacy education in Australia? Australian Journal of Language & Literacy 34.2, 9–19.Google Scholar
Lu, M. (2009). Metaphors matter: Transcultural literacy. Journal of Advanced Composition 29.1–2, 285–294.Google Scholar
Luciak, M. (2008). Education of ethnic minorities and migrants in Austria. In Wan, G. (ed.), The education of diverse student populations: A global perspective. Dordrecht: Springer, 45–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luke, A. (2011). Generalizing across cultural borders: Policy and the limits of educational science. Educational Researcher 40.8, 367–377.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lukes, M. (2011). ‘I understand English but can't write it’: The power of native language instruction for adult English learners. International Multilingual Research Journal 5.1, 19–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacSwan, J. (2000). The threshold hypothesis, semilingualism, and other contributions to a deficit view of linguistic minorities. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 22.1, 3–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacSwan, J. & Rolstad, K. (2003). Linguistic diversity, schooling, and social class: Rethinking our conception of language proficiency in language minority education. In Paulston, C & Tucker, R. (eds.), Sociolinguistics: The essential readings. Oxford: Blackwell, 329–340.Google Scholar
Makoni, S. (2003). From misinvention to disinvention of language: Multilingualism and the South African constitution. In Makoni, S., Smitherman, G., Ball, A. & Spears, A. (eds.), Black linguistics: Language, society, and politics in Africa and the Americas. New York: Routledge, 132–152.Google Scholar
Makoni, S. & Pennycook, A. (2007). Disinventing and reconstituting languages. Bristol, UK: Multilingual matters.Google Scholar
Martin, J. (1992). English text: System and structure. Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin, P. (2003). Supporting English language learners with low literacy skills in the high school classroom. In Martin, P., Houtchons, B., Ramirez, M. & Seidner, M. (ed.), High school reform and English language learner students: Perspectives from the field. Washington, DC: Council of Chief State School Officers, 14–26.Google Scholar
Matthews, J. (2008). Schooling and settlement: Refugee education in Australia. International Studies in Sociology of Education 18.1, 31–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McBrien, J. (2011). The importance of context: Vietnamese, Somali, and Iranian refugee mothers discuss their resettled lives and involvement in their children's schools. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education 41.1, 75–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McNamara, T. & Roever, C. (2006). Language testing: The social dimension. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
McNeil, L. & Valenzuela, A. (2000). The harmful impact of the TAAS system of testing in Texas: Beneath the accountability rhetoric. In Orfield, G. & Kornhaber, M. (eds.), Raising standards or raising barriers? Inequality and high stakes testing in public education. Boston, MA: Harvard Civil Rights Project, 127–150.Google Scholar
McTaggart, R. & Curró, G. (2009). Book language as a foreign language: ESL strategies for indigenous learners. Toowong, Queensland, Australia: Queensland College of Teachers.Google Scholar
Meltzer, J. & Hamann, E. (2005). Meeting the literacy development needs of adolescent English language learners through content-area learning. Providence, RI: The Education Alliance at Brown University.Google Scholar
Menken, K. (2008). English learners left behind: Standardized testing as language policy. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Menken, K. (2009). Policy failures: No child left behind and English language learners. In Groenke, S. & Hatch, A. (eds.), Critical pedagogy and teacher education in the neoliberal era: Small openings. Berlin: Springer, 49–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Menken, K. (2010). NCLB and English language learners: Challenges and consequences. Theory into Practice 49.2, 121–128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Menken, K. & Kleyn, T. (2009). The difficult road for long-term English learners. Educational Leadership 66.7, no page numbers.Google Scholar
Menken, K. & Kleyn, T. (2010). The long-term impact of subtractive schooling in the educational experiences of secondary English language learners. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 13.4, 399–417.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Menken, K., Funk, A. & Kleyn, T. (with Ascenzi-Moreno, L., Chae, N. & Flores, N.) (2011). Teachers at the epicenter: Engagement and resistance in a biliteracy program for ‘Long-term English language learners’ in the US In Hélot, C. & Laoire, M. Ó (eds), Pedagogy of the possible: Language policy for the multilingual classroom. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters, 79–104.Google Scholar
Menken, K., Kleyn, T & Chae, N. (2012). Spotlight on ‘long-term English language learners’: Characteristics and prior schooling experiences of an invisible population. International Multilingual Research Journal 6.2, 121–142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Menken, K. & Solorza, C. (forthcoming). No child left bilingual: Accountability and the elimination of bilingual education programs in New York City schools. Educational Policy.Google Scholar
Miele, C. (2003). Bergen community college meets Generation 1.5. Community College Journal of Research and Practice 27.7, 603–612.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, J. (2009). Teaching refugee learners with interrupted education in science: Vocabulary, literacy and pedagogy. International Journal of Science Education 31.4, 571–592.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, J., Mitchell, J. & Brown, J. (2005). African refugees with interrupted schooling in the high school mainstream: Dilemmas for teachers. Prospects: An Australian Journal of TESOL 20.2, 19–33.Google Scholar
Naidoo, L. (2009). A structuration theory analysis of the refugee action support program in Great Western Sydney. Australian Journal of Teacher Education 34.4, 40–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Naidoo, L. (2010). Engaging the refugee community of Greater Western Sydney. Issues in Educational Research 20.1, 47–56.Google Scholar
Nation, P. (2006). How large a vocabulary is needed for reading and listening? Canadian Modern Language Review 63, 59–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
New York City Department of Education, Office of English Language Learners (2008). New York City's English language learners: Demographics and performance. New York: Author.Google Scholar
Nsubuga-Kyobe, A. & Dimock, L. (2002). African communities and settlement services in Victoria. Bundoora: Australian Multicultural Foundation.Google Scholar
Nykiel-Herbert, B. (2010). Iraqi refugee students: From a collection of aliens to a community of learners – The role of cultural factors in the acquisition of literacy by Iraqi refugee students with interrupted formal education. Multicultural Education 17.3, 2–14.Google Scholar
Odo, D. (2012). The impact of high school exit exams on ESL learners in British Columbia. English Language Teaching 5.9, 1–8.Google Scholar
Olsen, L. (1997). Made in America: Immigrant students in our public schools. New York: New Press.Google Scholar
Olsen, L. (2010). Reparable harm: Fulfilling the unkept promise of educational opportunity for California's long term English learners. Long Beach, CA: Californians Together.Google Scholar
Olsen, L. & Jaramillo, A. (1999). Turning the tide of exclusion: A guide for educators and advocates for immigrant students. Oakland, CA: California Tomorrow.Google Scholar
Ontario Ministry of Education (2008). Supporting English language learners with limited prior schooling: A practical guide for Ontario educators. Ontario, Canada: Queen's Printer for Ontario.Google Scholar
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Programme for International Students Assessment (PISA) (2006). Where immigrant students succeed – A comparative review of performance and engagement in PISA 2003. Paris, France: OECD.Google Scholar
Otsuji, E. & Pennycook, A. D. (2010). Metrolingualism: Fixity, fluidity and language in flux. International Journal of Multilingualism 7, 240–254.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pennycook, A. (2004). Performativity and language studies. Critical inquiry in language studies: An international journal 1.1, 1–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pennycook, A. (2010). Language as a local practice. London: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Polesel, J., Dulfer, N. & Turnbull, M. (2012). The experience of education: The impacts of high stakes testing on school students and their families. Sydney, Australia: The Whitlam Institute within the University of Western Sydney.Google Scholar
Powell, J. & Wagner, S. (2002). Zur Entwicklung der Überrepräsentanz Migrantenjugendlicher an Sonderschulen in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. [Over-representation of migrants in special needs education in Germany]. Gemeinsam Leben. Zeitschrift für integrative Erziehung 10.2, 66–71.Google Scholar
Quinnell, L. & Carter, L. (2011). Cracking the language code: NAPLAN numeracy tests in Years 7 and 9. Literacy Learning: The Middle Years 19.1, 49–53.Google Scholar
Rance-Roney, J. (2009). Best practices for adolescent ELLs. Educational Leadership 66.7, 32–37.Google Scholar
Roberge, M. (2002). California's Generation 1.5 immigrants: What experiences, characteristics, and needs do they bring to our English classes? CATESOL Journal 14, 107–129.Google Scholar
Roessingh, H. & Kover, P. (2002). Working with younger-arriving ESL learners in high school English: Never too late to reclaim potential. TESOL Canada Journal 19.2, 1–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosa, J. (2010). Looking like a language, sounding like a race: Making Latin@ panethnicity and managing American anxieties. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Roy, L. & Roxas, K. (2011). Whose deficit is this anyhow? Exploring counter-stories of Somali Bantu refugees’ experiences in ‘doing school’. Harvard Educational Review 81.3, 521–542.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rubinstein-Avila, E. (2004). Conversing with Miguel: An adolescent English language learner struggling with later literacy development. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy 47.4, 290–301.Google Scholar
Ruiz de Velasco, J. (2005). Performance-based school reforms and the federal role in helping schools that serve language-minority children. In Valenzuela, A. (ed.), Leaving children behind: How ‘Texas-style’ accountability fails Latino youth. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 33–56.Google Scholar
Ruiz de Velasco, J. & Fix, M. (2000). Overlooked and underserved: Immigrant students in US secondary schools. The Urban Institute Report. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute.Google Scholar
Saxena, M. (2010). Reconceptualising teachers’ directive and supportive scaffolding in bilingual classrooms within the neo-Vygotskyan approach. Journal of Applied Linguistics & Professional Practice 7.2, 169–190.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schleppegrell, M. (2004). The language of schooling: A functional linguistics perspective. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scwartz, G. (2004). Coming to terms: Generation 1.5 students in mainstream composition. The Reading Matrix 4.3, 40–57.Google Scholar
Shohamy, E. (2001). The power of tests: A critical view of the uses of language tests. Harlow, UK: Pearson Longman.Google Scholar
Shohamy, E. (2006). Language policy: Hidden agendas and new approaches. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Short, D. (2002). Newcomer programs: An educational alternative for secondary immigrant students. Education and Urban Society 34, 173–198.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Short, D. & Boyson, B. (2004). Creating access: Language and academic programs for secondary school newcomers. Washington, DC and McHenry, IL: Center for Applied Linguistics and Delta Systems.Google Scholar
Short, D. & Boyson, B. (2011). Helping newcomer students succeed in secondary schools and beyond. Report for the Carnegie Corporation. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.Google Scholar
Short, D. & Fitzsimmons, S. (2007). Double the work: Challenges and solutions to acquiring language and academic literacy for adolescent English language learners. New York: Alliance for Excellent Education.Google Scholar
Singhal, M. (2004). Academic writing and Generation 1.5: Pedagogical goals and instructional issues in the college composition classroom. The Reading Matrix 4.3, 1–13.Google Scholar
Skutnabb-Kangas, T. & Toukomaa, P. (1976). Teaching migrant children's mother tongue and learning the language of the host country in the context of the socio-cultural situation of the migrant family. Helsinki: The Finnish National Commission for UNESCO.Google Scholar
Snow, C. & Biancarosa, G. (2003). Adolescent literacy and the achievement gap: What do we know and where do we go from here? New York: Carnegie Corporation.Google Scholar
Solórzano, R. (2008). High stakes testing: Issues, implications, and remedies for English language learners. Review of Educational Research 78.2, 260–329.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spaulding, S., Carolino, B. & Amen, K. (2004). Immigrant students and secondary school reform: Compendium of best practices. Washington, DC: Council Of Chief State School Officers.Google Scholar
Spinthourakis, J. A., Karatzia-Stavliot, E., Lempesi, G. E. & Papdimitriou, I. (2008). Country report: Greece. Educational policies that address social inequality. EACEA Action 6.1.2. London: IPSE.Google Scholar
Street, B. (2003). What's ‘new’ in New Literacy Studies? Critical approaches to literacy in theory and practice. Current Issues in Comparative Education 5.2, 77–91.Google Scholar
Suárez-Orozco, C., Suárez-Orozco, M. & Todorova, I. (2008). Learning a new land: Immigrant students in American society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Talmy, S. (2004). Forever FOB: The cultural production of ESL in a high school. Pragmatics, 14.2/3, 149–172.Google Scholar
Thomas, W. & Collier, V. (1997). School effectiveness for language minority students. Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education.Google Scholar
Thomas, W. & Collier, V. (2002). A national study of school effectiveness for language minority students’ long term academic achievement: Final report (Project 1.1). CREDE. http://crede.ucsc.edu/research/llaa/1.1_final.htmlGoogle Scholar
Thonus, T. (2003). Serving Generation 1.5 learners in the university writing center. TESOL Journal 12, 17–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Toohey, K. & Derwing, T. (2008). Hidden losses: How demographics can encourage incorrect assumptions about ESL high school students’ success. The Alberta Journal of Educational Research 54.2, 178–193.Google Scholar
Valadez, C., MacSwan, J. & Martínez, C. (2002). Toward a new view of low-achieving bilinguals: A study of linguistic competence in designated ‘semilinguals’. Bilingual Review 25.3, 238–248.Google Scholar
Valdés, G. (2001). Learning and not-learning English: Latino students in American schools. New York: Teachers College Press.Google Scholar
Valencia, R. & Villarreal, B. (2005). Texas’ second wave of high-stakes testing: Anti-social promotion legislation, grade retention, and adverse impact on minorities. In Valenzuela, A. (ed.), Leaving children behind: How ‘Texas-style’ accountability fails Latino youth. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 113–152.Google Scholar
Valenzuela, A. (1999). Subtractive schooling: US Mexican youth and the politics of caring. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.Google Scholar
Vasquez, C. (2007). Comments from the classroom: A case study of a Generation 1.5 student in a university IEP and beyond. The Canadian Modern Language Review 63.3, 345–370.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Villalva, K. (2006). Hidden literacies and inquiry approaches of bilingual high school writers. Written Communication 23.1, 91–129.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walqui, A. (2000). Access and engagement: Program design and instructional approaches for immigrant students in secondary schools. McHenry, IL: Center for Applied Linguistics.Google Scholar
Watt, D. & Roessingh, H. (2001). The dynamics of ESL drop-out: Plus ça change. . . Canadian Modern Language Review/La revue canadienne des langues vivantes 58.2, 203–222.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wei, L. (2011). Multilinguality, multimodality, and multicompetence: Code- and modeswitching by minority ethnic children in complementary schools. The Modern Language Journal 95.3, 370–384.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wigglesworth, G., Simpson, J. & Loakes, D. (2011). Naplan language assessments for indigenous children in remote communities: Issues and problems. Australian Review of Applied Linguistics 34.3, 320–343.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wiley, T. & Wright, W. (2004). Against the undertow: Language-minority education policy and politics in the ‘age of accountability’. Educational Policy 18.1, 142–168.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, C. (1994). Arfarniad o ddulliau dysgu ac addysgu yng nghyd-destun addysg uwchradd ddwyieithog [Evaluation of teaching and learning methods in the context of bilingual secondary education]. Bangor, UK: University of Wales.Google Scholar
Williamson, F. (2012). Generation 1.5: The LBOTE blind spot. Journal of Academic Language & Learning 6.2, A1–A13.Google Scholar
Wright, W. (2010). Foundations for teaching English language learners: Research, theory, policy, and practice. Philadelphia, PA: Caslon Publishing.Google Scholar
Yang, H., Urrabazo, T. & Murray, W. (2001). How did multiple years (7+) in a BE/ESL program affect the English acquisition and academic achievement of secondary LEP students? Results from a large urban school district. Dallas, TX: Dallas Independent School District.Google Scholar
Yi, Y. (2007). Engaging literacy: A biliterate student's composing practices beyond school. Journal of Second Language Writing 16, 23–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Young, V. (2004). Your average Nigga. College Composition and Communication 55, 693–715.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zwiers, J. (2007). Building academic language: Essential practices for content classrooms. Hoboken, NJ: Jossey Bass.Google Scholar