More than 3000 mammals were captured and translocated during a rescue operation conducted in French Guiana during the filling of a hydroelectric dam, a unique opportunity to gather biological data on many aspects of the Guianan fauna. All animals were identified, anaesthetized, measured, and biological samples (blood, skin biopsies) were collected and preserved. This study presents morphological data on all captured mammals belonging to 40 species of Marsupialia, Xenarthra, Primates, Carnivora, Artiodactyla, Rodentia and Sirenia. Data reported here include weight, shoulder height, head and body, tail, hind foot, head, and ear lengths, and some additional measurements for particular species. Some species were found to be larger than previously reported, which may be attributed to the large sample size, circumstances of data collection or to geographic variations. Such basic data appear to be hardly available on neotropical mammals, and thus provide useful comparative material for further studies.

The reproductive biology and ecology of the European pond turtle Emys orbicularis is little known, and available information was previously mainly anecdotal. Morphological data on E. orbicularis are now well documented in most of the known distribution area. Body size in northern populations tends to be larger than in southern populations. There are also indications that clutch size may be larger in northern than in southern European pond turtle populations. Clutch size and reproductive status of a central Italy population were detected by radiography and palpation, respectively, and comparative data were obtained by direct count of intact nest eggs. Reproductive females averaged 13.9 cm and rarely exceeded 15.5 cm carapace length. They produced a clutch size of six, the same number found in intact nests. Nest egg-size averaged 32 mm in length. Egg number was positively associated with female body size, and especially with carapace height.

The diet and foraging behaviour of 15 radio-tagged pangolins were studied in the Sabi Sand Wildtuin for 14 months, together with the community composition and occurrence of epigaeic ants and termites. Fifty-five ant and termite species of 25 genera were trapped in pitfalls of which Pheidole sp. 2 was the most common (27% occurrence). Five termite and 15 ant species were preyed on by pangolins. Six of these species constituted 97% of the diet while ants formed 96% of the diet. Anoplolepis custodiens constituted the major component of the pangolins' diet (77% occurrence) while forming only 5% of the trapped ants. Above-ground ant and termite activity was higher during summer than during winter (an 11-fold difference for A. custodiens), and the above-ground activity was also higher during the day than at night. Pangolins fed for 16% of their foraging time. However, 99% of the observed feeding bouts (mean duration 40 s) were on subterranean prey. The mean dig depth was 3.8 cm. Prey from deeper digs were fed upon for longer periods. A model taking into account various ant characteristics suggests that ant abundance and ant size are the two most important factors determining the number of feeding bouts that pangolins undertake on a particular ant species. Temperature effects on ant activity and their nest characteristics may exclude pangolins from parts of southern Africa.

The morphospace defined by 87 species of ground beetle (Coleoptera: Carabidae) of Scottish non-forested habitats is described with multivariate methods, using 13 linear quantitative measurements of the body, hind legs, eyes and antennae, plus five qualitative characters concerned with body shape, colour, wing development, and pubescence. Relationships between pairs of variables are studied with phylogenetic independent contrasts, using two different taxonomic classifications as an approximation to the phylogeny of the group. The first ordination axis of the morphospace was found mainly to reflect the positive correlation between length of the antennae and length of the hind legs, the second to reflect the width of the head, diameter of the eye and pronotum height, and the third the width of the pronotum and elytra, length of the metatrochanter and width of the metafemur. The principal relationships involving qualitative characters were between colour of the body and legs and shape of the pronotum with ordination axes, wing development with width of the elytra, and pubescence with colour of the legs. Most correlations between quantitative variables, in particular those most influencing the ordination axes of the morphospace, remained significant when measured with phylogenetic independent contrasts using both classifications. Independent contrasts comparing qualitative with quantitative variables or ordination axes were only significant for the colour of the body with the second axis for both classifications used, and length of the antennae with colour of the body and shape of the pronotum for only one of the classifications. The main morphological trends within the morphospace defined are related with published information on their performance, in particular running speed and pushing abilities, following previous work on the functional morphology of the group. The morphospace defined by the species studied is a fundamental tool that will allow further investigations on the relationships between their morphology and life traits, as well as on the relationships of the functional diversity thus characterized with environmental correlates.

Macquarie Island is the southernmost limit to the distribution of the black rat Rattus rattus. The species was introduced to this subantarctic island by sealers during the 19th century. The rats are now widespread and abundant in coastal areas all around the island. The distribution of rat populations is divided into discrete units by the availability of suitable habitat which, in turn, is a consequence of the rugged topography, particularly on the west coast. Rats are found from almost sea level to 200–250 m a.s.l. and up to 1 km inland. They have adapted successfully to the rigorous climate and firmly occupy a habitat niche in an environment where food is plentiful, predators are few and interspecific competition minimal. The principal habitat, tall Poa foliosa tussock grassland, provides year-round shelter and food. Rats dig burrows in the peaty stools of the tussock plants and construct nesting chambers at the base of the dense leaf canopy. Predictably, this provides a warmer and more stable thermal environment than that experienced outside under the tussock canopy where the runs are located. Tussock grasslands are spreading under the influence of management control measures directed at the introduced European rabbit and possibly global warming. Management programmes are also directed towards the eradication of feral cats. In response, rat populations may be expected to expand in numbers and to occupy new territories. Without control this may, in the long term, have serious consequences for the island's avifauna, particularly the smaller, burrow-nesting species.

Sex differences in body size and head dimensions are widespread in adult snakes, but because data are scarce for neonates, it is unclear whether differences are present from birth or arise post-natally. Here we analyse patterns of sexual dimorphism in neonates and adults of four species of natricine snakes, Nerodia sipedon, Storeria dekayi, Thamnophis radix, and T. sirtalis. Two measures of body size (snout–vent length, mass), four measures of head morphology (head length, head width, jaw length, and interocular distance), and tail length were obtained from wild-caught adults and from offspring born to wild-caught females. Among neonates, significant sexual dimorphism was found in body size for S. dekayi and T. sirtalis, in head dimensions for S. dekayi, T. radix, and T. sirtalis, and in tail length for all four species. Among adults, significant sexual dimorphism was found in body size, head dimensions, and tail length for all four species. The degree of sexual dimorphism in body size among adults greatly exceeded that among neonates. In contrast, the degree of sexual dimorphism in head dimensions was similar between neonates and adults. The presence of significant sexual dimorphism among neonates suggests that hypotheses regarding the evolutionary significance of sexual dimorphism in snakes should consider newborns as well as adults.

Shell shape in gastropods is generated by the spiral path of shell material laid down at the aperture. Many aspects of shape will therefore be associated. Such associations may indicate constraints, limiting the range of variation seen in populations as a response to different environmental pressures. Associations of shell variables were studied using the sibling species Littorina saxatilis and Littorina arcana. The same closely associated subset of three variables was found in both species, related to the maintenance of a constant aperture shape, despite variation in overall morphology. These closely associated variables describe similar variation in the two species. The less closely associated variables may contribute more to inter-specific differences.

Parental care, especially as it relates to our understanding of sociality, is a topic that has received considerable recent attention in research on spiders (Aviles, 1997). Predatory strategies, including foraging decisions, prey preferences and predatory versatility, have also been emphasized in the recent literature. The present paper is concerned with both of these areas, parental care and predatory strategies. Scytodes sp. indet. is a versatile predator that captures prey either in its web or away from webs, and prey capture may be either by ambush or by active pursuit regardless of whether in the presence and absence of webs. The web is a sparsely woven sheet across a concave upper leaf surface, with a three-dimensional tubular nest linked to the sheet via a small opening. Leaves may be green and living or brown and dead. In the field, a wide range of insects and spiders is taken, but jumping spiders (Salticidae) are the dominant prey. Predatory attacks are by spitting, with large prey being spat at repeatedly before being subdued. After spitting, the scytodid wraps prey in silk before feeding. Eggs are enclosed in a silk egg sac. The female uses her chelicerae to hold her eggs until hatching. After hatching, there is an extended mother–offspring association, with juveniles tending to remain in their mother's web until after the third moult. Females take prey to their juveniles and either feed alongside the juveniles or leave the juveniles to feed alone.

We investigated camps of black Pteropus alecto and red flying-fox P. scapulatus in the early dry season of 1992 (April–June) in Kakadu National Park, a World Heritage Area in the wet-dry tropics of north Australia. Fifteen camp-sites were located and two types of camps were defined: main camps containing > 1000 animals and a significant component of young (P. alecto, n = 4; P. scapulatus, n = 2) and satellite camps of lesser size (P. alecto, n = 9; P. scapulatus, n = 3). The two species shared three camp-sites. All camps were in dense riparian vegetation (fresh and saltwater mangroves, paperbark forests, closed forest and bamboo), overhanging or adjacent to water inhabited by crocodiles, that would provide a protected microclimate and protection from predators. All camps were within 5 km or less of one or more unoccupied sites that were indistinguishable in landform or vegetation from camp-sites. In Kakadu NP riparian vegetation makes up about 6% of the park and is a non-limiting resource for flying-fox roosting. We propose that the initial colonization of camp-sites is essentially random when roost vegetation is non-limiting and that factors such as predation by humans, cyclones and fires determine the persistence and size of camps at the local level. At a broader temporal and spatial scale, interaction between the seasonal availability of forage and reproductive cycles is known to influence the location, size and structure of Pteropus camps. We advance the hypothesis that colonies of flying-foxes could be moved to new camp-sites, a strategy that would facilitate resolution of the frequently problematic management of these animals.

Traditional categories of locomotor habit in mammals are largely based on variables that are continuous in nature, making intermediate forms difficult to evaluate quantitatively. Interpretations of these categories have varied greatly among authors, mainly owing to the inconsistent meanings ascribed to these essentially morphological variables. As a result, it is not clear whether these categories reflect any true locomotor influence, or if they can be applied in any form to non-mammalian taxa. In order to rectify these two difficulties, locomotor categories are rejected here in favour of a multivariate continuum. By basing this continuum on morphological variables that fulfil predictions of limb design under biomechanical theory, it can be tied to limb mechanics and applied to both extant and extinct animals alike. A series of such measurements were taken from a large sample of mammal and dinosaur hindlimb bones, and subjected to statistical testing. Patterns of variation in dinosaurs are similar to those seen in mammals, ranging between extremes traditionally designated as ‘cursorial’ and ‘graviportal’. An evaluation of dinosaur locomotor evolution in light of this continuum suggests that dinosaurs originated as small cursors, but that most lineages acquired a more mid-grade locomotor habit. Large taxa (sauropods, armoured ornithischians) were essentially graviportal, while smaller forms tended towards cursoriality; only coelurosaur theropods developed cursoriality at large body sizes. The discrepancy between large, graviportal herbivores and large, mid-grade to cursorial carnivores in Mesozoic communities argues against pursuit predation as a major influence in dinosaur locomotor evolution.

We examined demographics, dispersal, sex-related behaviour, group structure, and genetic similarities of female feral pigs Sus scrofa on the Chaparral Wildlife Management Area in southern Texas from June 1993 to December 1995. Cumulative and seasonal ranges and core areas were calculated for 18 female pigs representing three distinct sounders. Simultaneous pairs of radio locations were used to assess behavioural associations among pigs, and DNA fingerprinting was used to determine genetic similarity. Behavioural and spatial associations largely corresponded to genetic relationships. Similarity of behavioural dendrograms to genetic dendrograms indicated that genetic relationships of feral pigs played a role in observed population structure. A single discrepancy between genetic and behavioural dendrograms suggested two animals dispersed to an adjacent sounder. Also, one sounder appeared to have been created by fission from a larger, adjacent sounder. Factors that are important keys in understanding the association between genetics and behaviour of feral pigs include dispersal, climate, habitat quality, population densities, and sex-related behaviour.

At one nursery roost of Leisler's bat Nyctalus leisleri, the first bat often, and over half of the colony exceptionally, left before sunset. Departure was earlier during the period of lactation, when energy demands were highest. Consequently emergence data had to be standardized to allow for this before investigating possible associations with light intensity and meteorological factors. The importance of such standardization in general is emphasized. Emergence was earlier on overcast nights and was delayed with increased light intensity. The bats in a neighbouring roost, from which fewer data were obtained, also left earlier on overcast evenings, but departure was generally later than in the first roost, and there was no evidence of its being earlier during lactation. These differences between the roosts may be at least partially explained by the difference in size of the exit holes. At both roosts departure was mainly as a series of outbursts, and this was more marked during the first half of emergence. Rate of emergence increased with colony size. It was unusual for the first bat to leave more than 30 min, or for any bat to leave over 60 min, after sunset. Heavy rain inhibited or disrupted emergence.

Brants' whistling rat Parotomys brantsii is a gregarious rodent that undergoes marked population fluctuations every few years. Previous studies have variously described them as solitary or social. In this field study, based on direct observations, the social structure and breeding system of a population that almost quadrupled over 7 months was investigated. At the onset of the breeding season, the animals were solitary, each occupying a separate warren. By the end of the breeding season, there was multiple occupancy of some warrens. Each individual maintained a discrete territory within the warren, and exhibited no apparent social behaviour. Outside the breeding season the behaviour of males and females did not differ and both remained at their resident warrens. During the breeding season male P. brantsii visited more neighbouring warrens than did the females, and their visits were to unoccupied warrens or to those occupied by females. Females tended to remain within their own warren. Both sexes avoided warrens occupied by males and few male–male interactions were observed. Females were solicited at their warrens by males, who were frequently chased away. There was, however, evidence that reproductively receptive females were more tolerant of males, who may guard females following mating. This breeding system, based on competitive mate searching by males, and not overt aggression between males, parallels the scramble competition polygyny described for a number of other species, including North American ground squirrels.

Four species of the genus Hippopodina Levinsen, 1909 are described from material originally attributed to Hippopodina feegeensis (Busk, 1884). The type species Lepralia feegeensis is redescribed and three further species of Hippopodina are recognized: H. pulcherrima (Canu & Bassler, 1928), H. iririkiensis sp. nov. and H. viriosa sp. nov.

The ability of some mammals to forage on vines or terminal branches depends upon their grasping extremities. This study tests the functional link between use of small-diameter supports and grasping abilities by comparing hand and foot proportions in didelphid marsupials. Metapodials and phalanges were measured for the hands and feet of six didelphid taxa characterized by different patterns of substrate use. Comparisons of hand and foot proportions demonstrate that Marmosa and Caluromys, didelphids that rely on vines or terminal branches, possess more prehensile extremities than Monodelphis, Didelphis, and Philander, which travel and feed mainly on the ground. Moreover, the proportions of the hand and foot of Marmosa and Caluromys are more similar to those of cheirogaleid primates than those of other didelphids. These morphological data corroborate the suggestion that the use of branches of small diameter was an important factor in the development of prehensile hands and feet in early primates.

On an East–West transect in northern Patagonia, the steppe-inhabiting mouse Akodon (or Abrothrix) xanthorhinus meets the forest-inhabiting Akodon (Abrothrix) olivaceus on the eastern side of the Andes where steppe meets forest. In a contact zone of about 30 km, the mice are morphologically intermediate. Nuclear (allozyme) and mitochondrial DNA analyses confirm that the genetic difference between eastern, western, and intermediate populations is not much greater than would be expected within individuals from a single population. We conclude that xanthorhinus and olivaceus should be united under the species name olivaceus.

Breeding data for pied flycatchers Ficedula hypoleuca and collared flycatchers F. albicollis, from 47 localities in the Czech Republic and Slovakia, were analysed. We show that co-existence and hybridization were mainly restricted to a rather narrow, latitudinal cline. The distribution of the two flycatchers coincides with topography and habitat, collared flycatchers dominating in warmer habitats than pied flycatchers. Maintained co-existence within the same locality was the exception rather than the rule and most matings occurred in allopatry. In sympatry hybridization occurred at a frequency that was much lower than expected from random mating. Hybrids had low hatching success but some hybrids were apparently fertile. Shortage of conspecific mates may explain why individual birds engage in mixed species pairs. The proportion of pied flycatchers that was involved in mixed pairs was high and increased with decreasing relative frequencies of pied flycatchers in the population. The proportion of collared flycatchers involved in mixed pairs was low, reflecting the higher relative frequency of this species in most mixed populations. Comparisons suggest that fewer hybrids are breeding in the Central European, clinal hybrid zone than in the isolated hybrid zones of the Baltic Isles. Moreover, hybrid fertility was apparently higher in the island zones than in the clinal zone. We suggest that more extensive introgression in the isolated island populations has resulted in an increase in hybrid fitness by an accumulation of fertile individuals of mixed ancestry (i.e. F2, F3 . . . Fn-hybrids) acting as bridges for gene exchange. Differences in the dynamics of the two classes of hybrid zones, especially in pattern of gene flow, may explain these differences in frequency and fertility of hybrids.

The abundance of mink, otter, and polecat may be inferred from records of their scats, and the feeding biology of the species is often studied by analysis of skeletal remains and other hard parts in faeces. However, in some situations it is difficult to distinguish between faeces from these three mustelid species. A method is described for assigning faeces to these three mustelid species, based on analysis of DNA extracted from their scats. Mustelid-specific primers were developed for PCR amplification of a part of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene, and two restriction enzymes were found to detect species-specific sequence variation. Analysis of DNA from different faecal samples showed that the results were reproducible and that the approach provided an efficient method of species identification.

Chelodina rugosa is a fast-growing, carnivorous turtle that occupies seasonally ephemeral habitats, whereas Elseya dentata is relatively slow-growing, largely herbivorous and confined to permanent water. Ovarian cycles followed an annual cycle of enlargement beginning in December (E. dentata) and January (C. rugosa), followed by ovulation and then follicular regression. Nesting season was determined from presence of gravid females, and for C. rugosa spans some 8 months from the late wet season until mid dry season, during which the turtle lays multiple clutches of eggs in underwater nests. Nesting may continue for longer when waterholes dry later following prolonged wet season rains. Nesting by E. dentata also begins in the late wet season but is complete by May and only one clutch is laid. Females of both species reproduce each year and clutch size and mass are related to female size. Annual spermatogenic cycles are similar in timing to those reported for temperate-zone chelids but would be classified as pre-nuptial because spermatogenesis begins before breeding. Gonial proliferation begins at the start of the wet season and spermiation coincides with the onset of ovulation. Mating was not observed but in C. rugosa probably occurs during December and January soon after turtles emerge from aestivation. Post-mating storage of sperm in the epididymes did not occur in E. denatata but did appear to occur in some C. rugosa. The high reproductive output and extended nesting season of C. rugosa reflects its occupation of highly productive but unpredictable habitats and a reproductive strategy which ensures that some hatchlings meet optimal conditions for emergence. In contrast, the comparatively low fecundity and short nesting season of E. dentata, despite year-round warm temperatures and access to permanent water, suggests that its reproductive output may be energetically limited by a largely herbivorous protein-poor diet.

Long bones from a taxonomically diverse assemblage of extant terrestrial mammals, spanning more than three orders of magnitude in body mass, have been measured in order to evaluate earlier models proposed for limb allometry as a means of physically coping with increased body size in large species. Linear regression models are unable to explain long bone scaling across a large size range of mammals, as differential scaling is present in large and small species and smaller species tend to approach geometric similarity to a considerably greater extent than larger species. Attempting to explain the morphology of the appendicular skeleton across the large size range of terrestrial Mammalia by means of a standard power function will probably inevitably lead to oversimplification, concealing underlying adaptations for coping with increased size. These include differences in limb posture, decrease in locomotory potential and greater duty factors during fast locomotion in large animals compared to anatomically similar smaller forms, and differential scaling of the appendicular skeleton in small and large mammals.