Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-dsjbd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-21T23:14:32.179Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Ballad for Incarcerated Americans: Second Generation Japanese American Musicking in World War II Camps

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 August 2017

MARTA ROBERTSON
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

During World War II, the United States government imprisoned approximately 120,000 Japanese Americans, two-thirds of whom were American-born citizens, half of whom were children. Through ethnographic interviews I explore how fragile youthful memories, trauma, and the soundscape of the War Relocation Authority (WRA) Incarceration Camps shaped the artistic trajectories of three such former “enemy alien” youth: two pianists and a koto player. Counterintuitively, Japanese traditional arts flourished in the hostile environment of dislocation through the high number of nisei (second generation) participants, who later contributed to increasing transculturalism in American music following resettlement out of camp. Synthesizing Japanese and Euro-American classical music, white American popular music, and African American jazz, many nisei paradoxically asserted their dual cultural commitment to both traditional Japanese and home front patriotic American principles. A performance of Earl Robinson and John Latouche's patriotic cantata, Ballad for Americans (1939), by the high school choir at Manzanar Incarceration Camp demonstrates the hybridity of these Japanese American cultural practices. Marked by Popular Front ideals, Ballad for Americans allowed nisei to construct identities through a complicated mixture of ethnic pride, chauvinistic white Americanism allied with Bing Crosby's recordings of the Ballad, and affiliation with black racial struggle through Paul Robeson's iconic Ballad performances.

Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of the Society for American Music , Volume 11 , Issue 3 , August 2017 , pp. 284 - 312
Copyright
Copyright © The Society for American Music 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References

Center for Documentary Expression and Art. Salt Lake City, UT.Google Scholar
Denshō. http://www.densho.org.Google Scholar
Manzanar National Historic Site. National Park Service. Independence, CA.Google Scholar
Records of the War Relocation Authority [WRA], Record Group 210. National Archives and Records Administration. College Park, MD, and Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Wing Luke Museum of the Asian Pacific American Experience. Seattle, WA.Google Scholar
Adamic, Louis. From Many Lands. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1940.Google Scholar
“Annie, Annie Over.” Edited by Kitty Nowak. 19thcenturychildrensgames. http://19thcenturychildrensgames.pbworks.com/w/page/753268/ANNIE,%20ANNIE%20OVER.Google Scholar
Asai, Susan M. “The Cultural Politics of Issei Identity and Music Making in California, 1893–1941.” Journal of the Society for American Music 10, no. 3 (August 2016): 304–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Asai, Susan M. “Transformation of Tradition: Three Generations of Japanese American Music Making.” Musical Quarterly 79, no. 3 (Autumn 1995): 429–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Back Matter. Music Educator's Journal 27, no. 1 (September 1940): 35.Google Scholar
Barg, Lisa. “Paul Robeson's Ballad for Americans: Race and the Cultural Politics of ‘People's Music.’” Journal of the Society for American Music 2, no. 1 (February 2008): 27–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Briones, Matthew M. Jim and Jap Crow: A Cultural History of 1940s Interracial America. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Burton, Jeffery F., Roosevelt, Eleanor, and Cohen, Irene J.. Confinement and Ethnicity: An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites. 1999. Reprint, Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2002.Google Scholar
Butler, Judith. “Performativity, Precarity and Sexual Politics.” AIBR, Revista de Antropología Iberoamericana 4 (September–December 2009): i–xiii.Google Scholar
Colborn-Roxworthy, Emily. “‘Manzanar, the Eyes of the World Are upon You’: Performance and Archival Ambivalence at a Japanese American Internment Camp.” Theater Journal 59 (May 2007): 189–214.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians. Personal Justice Denied: Report of the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians. 1983. Reprint, Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1997.Google Scholar
Cosgrove, Ben. “Thank You Sweetheart for the ‘Jap Skull’: Portrait of a Grisly WWII Memento.” Time Life. http://life.time.com/history/young-woman-with-jap-skull-portrait-of-a-grisly-wwii-memento/#1.Google Scholar
Denning, Michael. The Cultural Front: The Laboring of American Culture in the Twentieth Century. London: Verso, 1996.Google Scholar
Denshō. “Terminology Redux.” The Japanese American Legacy Project. http://www.densho.org/terminology-redux/.Google Scholar
Denshō. “Sites of Shame.” The Japanese American Legacy Project. http://www.densho.org/sitesofshame/.Google Scholar
Dower, John W. War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War. New York: Pantheon Books, 1986.Google Scholar
Foster, Gwendolyn Audrey. Performing Whiteness: Postmodern Re/Constructions in the Cinema. Albany: State University of New York, 2003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frizzell, Louis. King's Fare. Manzanar National Historic Site, CA, n.d.Google Scholar
Gollygollygolly. “Musical Instrument, Tonette with Book.” Etsy. https://www.etsy.com/listing/91453492/musical-instrument-tonette-with-book.Google Scholar
Graham, Julie. “Biography.” Finding Aid for the Lou Frizzell Papers 1930s–70s. http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt458031v4/entire_text/.Google Scholar
Havey, Lily Yuriko Nakai. Gasa Gasa Girl Goes to Camp: A Nisei Youth Behind a World War II Fence. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2014.Google Scholar
Hayashi, Brian Masaru. Democratizing the Enemy: The Japanese American Internment. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004.Google Scholar
Hirahara, Naomi. “Glossary.” Naomi Hirahara. http://www.naomihirahara.com/glossary.html.Google Scholar
Hogopian, Kevin Jack. “‘You Know Who I Am!’ Paul Robeson's Ballad for Americans and the Paradox of the Double V in American Popular Front Culture.” In Paul Robeson: Essays on His Life and Legacy, edited by Dorinson, Joseph and Pencak, William, 167–79. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2002.Google Scholar
Howard, John. Concentration Camps on the Home Front: Japanese Americans in the House of Jim Crow. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Inada, Lawson Fusao. Only What We Could Carry: The Japanese American Internment Experience. Berkeley, CA: Heyday Books, 2000.Google Scholar
Kajikawa, Loren. “The Sound of Struggle: Black Revolutionary Nationalism and Asian American Jazz.” In Jazz/Not Jazz, edited by Ake, David, Garrett, Charles Hiroshi, and Goldmark, Daniel, 190–216. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lily Yuriko Nakai Havey. http://www.lilyyurikohavey.com.Google Scholar
Lowe, Lisa. Immigrant Acts: On Asian American Cultural Politics. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1996.Google Scholar
Lyon, Cherstin. Foreword to Lily Yuriko Nakai Havey, Gasa Gasa Girl Goes to Camp: A Nisei Youth Behind a World War II Fence, ix–xii. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2014.Google Scholar
McAndrew, Malia. “Japanese American Beauty and Minstrel Shows: The Performance of Gender and Race by Nisei Youth during World War II.” Journal of the History of Childhood and Youth 7, no. 1 (Winter 2014): 42–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Minks, Amanda. “From Children's Song to Expressive Practices: Old and New Directions in the Ethnomusicological Study of Children.” Ethnomusicology 46, no. 3 (Fall 2002): 379–408.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
NicWest2007. “The Tonette.” Flickr. https://www.flickr.com/photos/13926066@N06/3176142666/.Google Scholar
Ono, Gary T. “Jack Muro, The Underground Photographer of Amache.” Discover Nikkei. http://www.discovernikkei.org/en/journal/2013/5/13/jack-muro/.Google Scholar
Robertson, Marta. “Jitterbuggers, Sugar Plums, and a Geisha: Dancing Nexus in Japanese American Incarceration Facilities of World War II.” In Perspectives on American Dance: The New Millennium, edited by Atkins, Jennifer L., Sommer, Sally R., and Young, Tricia Henry. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, forthcoming, 2018.Google Scholar
Robinson, Earl, with Gordon, Eric A.. Ballad of an American: The Autobiography of Earl Robinson. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 1998.Google Scholar
Robinson, Greg. “War Relocation Authority.” Densho Encyclopedia. http://encyclopedia.densho.org/War_Relocation_Authority/.Google Scholar
Shelemay, Kay Kaufman. “Musical Communities: Rethinking the Collective in Music.” Journal of the American Musicological Society 64, no. 2 (Summer 2011): 349–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Small, Christopher. Musicking: The Meanings of Performing and Listening. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1998.Google Scholar
Smith, Mark M. The Smell of Battle, the Taste of Siege: A Sensory History of the Civil War. New York: Oxford University Press, 2015.Google Scholar
Unrau, Harlan D. Manzanar National Historic Site, California: The Evacuation and Relocation of Persons of Japanese Ancestry During World War II: A Historical Study of the Manzanar War Relocation Center. Historic Resource Study/Special History Study, Volumes 1 and 2. Denver, CO: U.S. Dept. of the Interior, National Park Service, 1996.Google Scholar
Uyeda, Clifford. Due Process: Americans of Japanese Ancestry and the United States Constitution, 1787–1994. San Francisco: National Japanese American Historical Society, 1995.Google Scholar
Von Glahn, Denise. The Sounds of Place: Music and the American Cultural Landscape. Boston: Northeastern University Press, 2003.Google Scholar
War Relocation Authority. Amache. Amache, CO: Reports Office, 1943. http://archive.densho.org/main.aspx.Google Scholar
Wartts, Adrienne. “Ben Carter.” An Online Reference Guide to African American History. http://www.blackpast.org/aah/carter-ben-1907-1946.Google Scholar
Waseda, Minako. “Music in Camp.” Densho Encyclopedia. http://encyclopedia.densho.org/Music%20in%20camp/.Google Scholar
Wong, Deborah. Speak It Louder: Asian Americans Making Music. New York: Routledge, 2004.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yang, Alice. “Redress.” Densho Encyclopedia, http://encyclopedia.densho.org/Redress_movement/#The_Commission_on_the_Wartime_Internment_and_Relocation_of_Civilians_.28CWRIC.29.Google Scholar
Yoshida, George. Reminiscing in Swingtime: Japanese Americans in American Popular Music, 1925–1960. San Francisco: National Japanese American Historical Society, 1997.Google Scholar
Yoshikami, Miyuki Kagawa. “A Basis of Modern Japanese Schooling: The Fundamental Aidagara (Human Interaction) Precepts of the Iemoto System.” Ph.D. diss., University of Maryland, College Park, 1993.Google Scholar
Yoshikami, Miyuki Kagawa. “The Iemoto System of the Arts: The Unacknowledged Philosophical and Institutional Basis of Japanese Education.” Master's thesis, University of Maryland, 1990.Google Scholar
Amache Preservation Society. “Driving Tour Map and Podcasts.” Map. Amache.org. 2012. http://www.amache.org/driving-tour-map-podcasts/.Google Scholar
Amache Preservation Society. “Map Granada Relocation Center.” Map. Amache.org. 2012. http://www.amache.org/map/.Google Scholar
Born to Sing—Original Trailer. Turner Classic Movies. http://www.tcm.com/mediaroom/video/145522/Born-to-Sing-Original-Trailer-.html.Google Scholar
German American Internee Coalition. http://www.gaic.info/internment_camp.html.Google Scholar
Havey, Lily Yuriko Nakai. http://www.lilyyurikohavey.com/#!gallery/c1hof.Google Scholar
Hidden Legacy: Japanese Traditional Performing Arts in the World War II Internment Camps . Directed by Shirley Kazuyo Muramoto-Wong. 2014. N.p.: Murasaki Productions, 2014. DVD.Google Scholar
Music Man of Manzanar . Directed by Brian T. Taeda. 2005. N.p.: J-Town Pictures, n.d. DVD.Google Scholar
Searchlight Serenade: Big Bands in the WWII Japanese American Incarceration Camps . Produced by Claire Reynolds and Amy Uyeki (animator). KEET-TV, Redwood Empire Public Television, Inc., and California Civil Liberties Public Education Program, 2012.Google Scholar
“Advance Record Releases.” Billboard, 14 June 1946, 118.Google Scholar
Bauman, Joe. “Remembering and Coping: Internment Camp Paintings Are a Catharsis for Salt Lake Artist.” Deseret News, 16 February 2007. http://www.deseretnews.com/article/660195869/Remembering-and-coping-Internment-camp-paintings-are-a-catharsis-for-Salt-Lake-artist.html?pg=all.Google Scholar
“Boy Scouts Sing ‘Ballad for Americans’ as Sales of Patriotic Songs Boom.” Life, 26 August 1940, 26.Google Scholar
Hardy, Roger L. “Exhibition Depicts Internment Camps.” Deseret News, 18 May 2008. http://www.deseretnews.com/article/700226899/Exhibition-depicts-internment-camps.html?pg=all.Google Scholar
Manzanar Free Press . “Commencement—July 3, 1943.” 7 July 1943, 2.Google Scholar
Manzanar Free Press . “Manzanar Goes to School.” 10 September 1943, 12. http://archive.densho.org/main.aspx.Google Scholar
Manzanar Free Press . “The Problem of Minority Groups.” 7 July 1943, 2.Google Scholar
Manzanar Free Press . “Senior Graduation Planned Tonight.” 3 July 1943, 1.Google Scholar
Marcus, James. “The First Hip White Person.” The Atlantic, February 2001. http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2001/02/-the-first-hip-white-person/302104/.Google Scholar
Grantham, Kay. Email messages to author.Google Scholar
Havey, Lily Yuriko Nakai. Email messages to author.Google Scholar
Hoshide, Dana. Email message to author.Google Scholar
Yoshida, George. “George Yoshida Interview, Segment 29 (2002).” Denshō Encyclopedia. http://encyclopedia.densho.org/George%20Yoshida/.Google Scholar
Yoshida, George. Email messages to author.Google Scholar
Yoshikami, Miyuki. Email messages to author.Google Scholar
Yoshikami, Miyuki. Interview by the author. Gettysburg College, Gettysburg, PA. 4 April 2006.Google Scholar
Yoshikami, Miyuki and Yoshikami, Shuko. Interview by the author. Bethesda, MD. 27 July 2015.Google Scholar
Robinson, Earl, Latouche, John, and Savino, Domenico. Ballad for Americans: A Modern Cantata for Baritone Solo and Mixed Chorus with Piano Accompaniment. New York: Robbins Music, 1940.Google Scholar
Robinson, Earl, Latouche, John, and Savino, Domenico. Ballad for Americans: For Baritone Solo and Mixed Chorus, with Orchestra Accompaniment. New York: Robbins Music, 1940.Google Scholar
Center for Documentary Expression and Art. Salt Lake City, UT.Google Scholar
Denshō. http://www.densho.org.Google Scholar
Manzanar National Historic Site. National Park Service. Independence, CA.Google Scholar
Records of the War Relocation Authority [WRA], Record Group 210. National Archives and Records Administration. College Park, MD, and Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Wing Luke Museum of the Asian Pacific American Experience. Seattle, WA.Google Scholar
Adamic, Louis. From Many Lands. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1940.Google Scholar
“Annie, Annie Over.” Edited by Kitty Nowak. 19thcenturychildrensgames. http://19thcenturychildrensgames.pbworks.com/w/page/753268/ANNIE,%20ANNIE%20OVER.Google Scholar
Asai, Susan M. “The Cultural Politics of Issei Identity and Music Making in California, 1893–1941.” Journal of the Society for American Music 10, no. 3 (August 2016): 304–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Asai, Susan M. “Transformation of Tradition: Three Generations of Japanese American Music Making.” Musical Quarterly 79, no. 3 (Autumn 1995): 429–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Back Matter. Music Educator's Journal 27, no. 1 (September 1940): 35.Google Scholar
Barg, Lisa. “Paul Robeson's Ballad for Americans: Race and the Cultural Politics of ‘People's Music.’” Journal of the Society for American Music 2, no. 1 (February 2008): 27–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Briones, Matthew M. Jim and Jap Crow: A Cultural History of 1940s Interracial America. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Burton, Jeffery F., Roosevelt, Eleanor, and Cohen, Irene J.. Confinement and Ethnicity: An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites. 1999. Reprint, Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2002.Google Scholar
Butler, Judith. “Performativity, Precarity and Sexual Politics.” AIBR, Revista de Antropología Iberoamericana 4 (September–December 2009): i–xiii.Google Scholar
Colborn-Roxworthy, Emily. “‘Manzanar, the Eyes of the World Are upon You’: Performance and Archival Ambivalence at a Japanese American Internment Camp.” Theater Journal 59 (May 2007): 189–214.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians. Personal Justice Denied: Report of the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians. 1983. Reprint, Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1997.Google Scholar
Cosgrove, Ben. “Thank You Sweetheart for the ‘Jap Skull’: Portrait of a Grisly WWII Memento.” Time Life. http://life.time.com/history/young-woman-with-jap-skull-portrait-of-a-grisly-wwii-memento/#1.Google Scholar
Denning, Michael. The Cultural Front: The Laboring of American Culture in the Twentieth Century. London: Verso, 1996.Google Scholar
Denshō. “Terminology Redux.” The Japanese American Legacy Project. http://www.densho.org/terminology-redux/.Google Scholar
Denshō. “Sites of Shame.” The Japanese American Legacy Project. http://www.densho.org/sitesofshame/.Google Scholar
Dower, John W. War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War. New York: Pantheon Books, 1986.Google Scholar
Foster, Gwendolyn Audrey. Performing Whiteness: Postmodern Re/Constructions in the Cinema. Albany: State University of New York, 2003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frizzell, Louis. King's Fare. Manzanar National Historic Site, CA, n.d.Google Scholar
Gollygollygolly. “Musical Instrument, Tonette with Book.” Etsy. https://www.etsy.com/listing/91453492/musical-instrument-tonette-with-book.Google Scholar
Graham, Julie. “Biography.” Finding Aid for the Lou Frizzell Papers 1930s–70s. http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt458031v4/entire_text/.Google Scholar
Havey, Lily Yuriko Nakai. Gasa Gasa Girl Goes to Camp: A Nisei Youth Behind a World War II Fence. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2014.Google Scholar
Hayashi, Brian Masaru. Democratizing the Enemy: The Japanese American Internment. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004.Google Scholar
Hirahara, Naomi. “Glossary.” Naomi Hirahara. http://www.naomihirahara.com/glossary.html.Google Scholar
Hogopian, Kevin Jack. “‘You Know Who I Am!’ Paul Robeson's Ballad for Americans and the Paradox of the Double V in American Popular Front Culture.” In Paul Robeson: Essays on His Life and Legacy, edited by Dorinson, Joseph and Pencak, William, 167–79. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2002.Google Scholar
Howard, John. Concentration Camps on the Home Front: Japanese Americans in the House of Jim Crow. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Inada, Lawson Fusao. Only What We Could Carry: The Japanese American Internment Experience. Berkeley, CA: Heyday Books, 2000.Google Scholar
Kajikawa, Loren. “The Sound of Struggle: Black Revolutionary Nationalism and Asian American Jazz.” In Jazz/Not Jazz, edited by Ake, David, Garrett, Charles Hiroshi, and Goldmark, Daniel, 190–216. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lily Yuriko Nakai Havey. http://www.lilyyurikohavey.com.Google Scholar
Lowe, Lisa. Immigrant Acts: On Asian American Cultural Politics. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1996.Google Scholar
Lyon, Cherstin. Foreword to Lily Yuriko Nakai Havey, Gasa Gasa Girl Goes to Camp: A Nisei Youth Behind a World War II Fence, ix–xii. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2014.Google Scholar
McAndrew, Malia. “Japanese American Beauty and Minstrel Shows: The Performance of Gender and Race by Nisei Youth during World War II.” Journal of the History of Childhood and Youth 7, no. 1 (Winter 2014): 42–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Minks, Amanda. “From Children's Song to Expressive Practices: Old and New Directions in the Ethnomusicological Study of Children.” Ethnomusicology 46, no. 3 (Fall 2002): 379–408.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
NicWest2007. “The Tonette.” Flickr. https://www.flickr.com/photos/13926066@N06/3176142666/.Google Scholar
Ono, Gary T. “Jack Muro, The Underground Photographer of Amache.” Discover Nikkei. http://www.discovernikkei.org/en/journal/2013/5/13/jack-muro/.Google Scholar
Robertson, Marta. “Jitterbuggers, Sugar Plums, and a Geisha: Dancing Nexus in Japanese American Incarceration Facilities of World War II.” In Perspectives on American Dance: The New Millennium, edited by Atkins, Jennifer L., Sommer, Sally R., and Young, Tricia Henry. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, forthcoming, 2018.Google Scholar
Robinson, Earl, with Gordon, Eric A.. Ballad of an American: The Autobiography of Earl Robinson. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 1998.Google Scholar
Robinson, Greg. “War Relocation Authority.” Densho Encyclopedia. http://encyclopedia.densho.org/War_Relocation_Authority/.Google Scholar
Shelemay, Kay Kaufman. “Musical Communities: Rethinking the Collective in Music.” Journal of the American Musicological Society 64, no. 2 (Summer 2011): 349–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Small, Christopher. Musicking: The Meanings of Performing and Listening. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1998.Google Scholar
Smith, Mark M. The Smell of Battle, the Taste of Siege: A Sensory History of the Civil War. New York: Oxford University Press, 2015.Google Scholar
Unrau, Harlan D. Manzanar National Historic Site, California: The Evacuation and Relocation of Persons of Japanese Ancestry During World War II: A Historical Study of the Manzanar War Relocation Center. Historic Resource Study/Special History Study, Volumes 1 and 2. Denver, CO: U.S. Dept. of the Interior, National Park Service, 1996.Google Scholar
Uyeda, Clifford. Due Process: Americans of Japanese Ancestry and the United States Constitution, 1787–1994. San Francisco: National Japanese American Historical Society, 1995.Google Scholar
Von Glahn, Denise. The Sounds of Place: Music and the American Cultural Landscape. Boston: Northeastern University Press, 2003.Google Scholar
War Relocation Authority. Amache. Amache, CO: Reports Office, 1943. http://archive.densho.org/main.aspx.Google Scholar
Wartts, Adrienne. “Ben Carter.” An Online Reference Guide to African American History. http://www.blackpast.org/aah/carter-ben-1907-1946.Google Scholar
Waseda, Minako. “Music in Camp.” Densho Encyclopedia. http://encyclopedia.densho.org/Music%20in%20camp/.Google Scholar
Wong, Deborah. Speak It Louder: Asian Americans Making Music. New York: Routledge, 2004.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yang, Alice. “Redress.” Densho Encyclopedia, http://encyclopedia.densho.org/Redress_movement/#The_Commission_on_the_Wartime_Internment_and_Relocation_of_Civilians_.28CWRIC.29.Google Scholar
Yoshida, George. Reminiscing in Swingtime: Japanese Americans in American Popular Music, 1925–1960. San Francisco: National Japanese American Historical Society, 1997.Google Scholar
Yoshikami, Miyuki Kagawa. “A Basis of Modern Japanese Schooling: The Fundamental Aidagara (Human Interaction) Precepts of the Iemoto System.” Ph.D. diss., University of Maryland, College Park, 1993.Google Scholar
Yoshikami, Miyuki Kagawa. “The Iemoto System of the Arts: The Unacknowledged Philosophical and Institutional Basis of Japanese Education.” Master's thesis, University of Maryland, 1990.Google Scholar
Amache Preservation Society. “Driving Tour Map and Podcasts.” Map. Amache.org. 2012. http://www.amache.org/driving-tour-map-podcasts/.Google Scholar
Amache Preservation Society. “Map Granada Relocation Center.” Map. Amache.org. 2012. http://www.amache.org/map/.Google Scholar
Born to Sing—Original Trailer. Turner Classic Movies. http://www.tcm.com/mediaroom/video/145522/Born-to-Sing-Original-Trailer-.html.Google Scholar
German American Internee Coalition. http://www.gaic.info/internment_camp.html.Google Scholar
Havey, Lily Yuriko Nakai. http://www.lilyyurikohavey.com/#!gallery/c1hof.Google Scholar
Hidden Legacy: Japanese Traditional Performing Arts in the World War II Internment Camps . Directed by Shirley Kazuyo Muramoto-Wong. 2014. N.p.: Murasaki Productions, 2014. DVD.Google Scholar
Music Man of Manzanar . Directed by Brian T. Taeda. 2005. N.p.: J-Town Pictures, n.d. DVD.Google Scholar
Searchlight Serenade: Big Bands in the WWII Japanese American Incarceration Camps . Produced by Claire Reynolds and Amy Uyeki (animator). KEET-TV, Redwood Empire Public Television, Inc., and California Civil Liberties Public Education Program, 2012.Google Scholar
“Advance Record Releases.” Billboard, 14 June 1946, 118.Google Scholar
Bauman, Joe. “Remembering and Coping: Internment Camp Paintings Are a Catharsis for Salt Lake Artist.” Deseret News, 16 February 2007. http://www.deseretnews.com/article/660195869/Remembering-and-coping-Internment-camp-paintings-are-a-catharsis-for-Salt-Lake-artist.html?pg=all.Google Scholar
“Boy Scouts Sing ‘Ballad for Americans’ as Sales of Patriotic Songs Boom.” Life, 26 August 1940, 26.Google Scholar
Hardy, Roger L. “Exhibition Depicts Internment Camps.” Deseret News, 18 May 2008. http://www.deseretnews.com/article/700226899/Exhibition-depicts-internment-camps.html?pg=all.Google Scholar
Manzanar Free Press . “Commencement—July 3, 1943.” 7 July 1943, 2.Google Scholar
Manzanar Free Press . “Manzanar Goes to School.” 10 September 1943, 12. http://archive.densho.org/main.aspx.Google Scholar
Manzanar Free Press . “The Problem of Minority Groups.” 7 July 1943, 2.Google Scholar
Manzanar Free Press . “Senior Graduation Planned Tonight.” 3 July 1943, 1.Google Scholar
Marcus, James. “The First Hip White Person.” The Atlantic, February 2001. http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2001/02/-the-first-hip-white-person/302104/.Google Scholar
Grantham, Kay. Email messages to author.Google Scholar
Havey, Lily Yuriko Nakai. Email messages to author.Google Scholar
Hoshide, Dana. Email message to author.Google Scholar
Yoshida, George. “George Yoshida Interview, Segment 29 (2002).” Denshō Encyclopedia. http://encyclopedia.densho.org/George%20Yoshida/.Google Scholar
Yoshida, George. Email messages to author.Google Scholar
Yoshikami, Miyuki. Email messages to author.Google Scholar
Yoshikami, Miyuki. Interview by the author. Gettysburg College, Gettysburg, PA. 4 April 2006.Google Scholar
Yoshikami, Miyuki and Yoshikami, Shuko. Interview by the author. Bethesda, MD. 27 July 2015.Google Scholar
Robinson, Earl, Latouche, John, and Savino, Domenico. Ballad for Americans: A Modern Cantata for Baritone Solo and Mixed Chorus with Piano Accompaniment. New York: Robbins Music, 1940.Google Scholar
Robinson, Earl, Latouche, John, and Savino, Domenico. Ballad for Americans: For Baritone Solo and Mixed Chorus, with Orchestra Accompaniment. New York: Robbins Music, 1940.Google Scholar