1 Walter Frisch, Introduction to ‘Memory and Schubert's Instrumental Music’, Musical Quarterly, 84 (2000), 581–663 (p. 581).

2 Carl Dahlhaus, ‘Sonata Form in Schubert’, Schubert: Critical and Analytical Studies, ed. Walter Frisch (Lincoln, NE, 1986), 1–12 (p. 8).

3 For example, Hermann Keller writes: ‘So müssen wir an die in Sonatenform geschriebenen Sonaten Schuberts mit einer ganz anderen Einstellung herantreten als an die Beethovens. Das hat […] Armin Knab schon 1920 efordert: “Man möge doch endlich aufhören, in Schuberts Sonaten nur verhinderte Beethoven-Sonaten zu sehen”’ (‘Schuberts Verhältnis zur Sonatenform’, Musa – Mens – Musici: Im Gedenken an Walther Vetter (Leipzig, 1969), 287–95 (p. 293)). Almost two decades later, Dahlhaus repeats the claim that ‘Schubert's lyric-epic sonata form ought not to be measured by the standards of Beethoven's dramatic-dialectic form’ (‘Sonata Form in Schubert’, 1), while Peter Gülke speaks of the reclassification (‘Umqualifizierung’) of (Beethovenian) sonata logic necessary for understanding Schubert (‘Zum Bilde des späten Schubert’, Musik-Konzepte Franz Schubert, ed. Heinz-Klaus Metzger and Rainer Riehn (Munich, 1979), 107–66 (p. 158)).

4 See, for instance, Carl Dahlhaus, Ludwig van Beethoven: Approaches to his Music, trans. Mary Whittall (Oxford, 1991), 202–3; Theodor W. Adorno, Beethoven: The Philosophy of Music, ed. Rolf Tiedermann, trans. Edmund Jephcott (Cambridge, 1998), 88–92; Eckehard Kiem, ‘Der Blick in Abgrund: Zeitstruktur beim späten Beethoven’, Musik in der Zeit: Zeit in der Musik, ed. Richard Klein, Eckehard Kiem and Wolfram Ette (Göttingen, 2000), 216–18; Elaine Sisman, ‘Memory and Invention at the Threshold of Beethoven's Late Style’, Beethoven and his World, ed. Scott Burnham and Michael Steinberg (Princeton, NJ, 2000), 51–87; and Karol Berger, ‘Between Utopia and Melancholy: Beethoven and the Aesthetic State’, Bach's Cycle, Mozart's Arrow: An Essay on the Origins of Musical Modernity (Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA, 2007), 293–350.

5 See Paul Ricoeur, Memory, History, Forgetting, trans. Kathleen Blamey and David Pellauer (Chicago, IL, 2006), 3–4.

6 Aristotle, On Memory, 449b14, The Complete Works of Aristotle, ed. Jonathan Barnes, 2 vols. (Princeton, NJ, 1984), i, 714.

7 Clearly there is a host of technical ways (involving the role of generic expectation, the ‘non-sounding’ elements of music (e.g. form), motor mechanisms of performance, etc.) in which memory is practically involved in musical perception and performance which are extraneous to the more hermeneutic sense of musical memory investigated here.

8 Cf. the brief account in Walter Frisch, ‘“You Must Remember This”: Memory and Structure in Schubert's String Quartet in G major, D.887’, Musical Quarterly, 84 (2000), 582–603.

9 Christopher Gibbs, ‘“Poor Schubert”: Images and Legends of the Composer’, The Cambridge Companion to Schubert, ed. Gibbs (Cambridge, 1997), 36–55 (p. 52).

10 Sir George Grove, Beethoven, Schubert, Mendelssohn, ed. Eric Blom (London, 1951), 232.

11 John Reed, Schubert, Master Musicians (Oxford, 1997), 105, 130.

12 Schubert, letter to Leopold Kupelwieser, 31 March 1824, in Schubert: Die Dokumente seines Lebens, ed. Otto Erich Deutsch (Kassel, 1964), 234, translation modified from Deutsch, Schubert: A Documentary Biography, trans. Eric Blom (London, 1947), 339.

13 Elizabeth Norman McKay (Franz Schubert: A Biography (Oxford, 1996), 164) dates the onset of syphilis as being probably in November 1822 – the time Schubert was writing the ‘Unfinished’ Symphony. It is indeed hard for listeners not to hypothesize a connection between life and art by hearing something of this sense of dread in the B minor Symphony, the contemporaneous ‘Wanderer’ Fantasy or the Piano Sonata in A minor, D.784, written the following February.

14 Maurice J. E. Brown, Schubert: A Critical Biography (London, 1958), 179.

15 Nicholas Rast, ‘“Schöne Welt wo bist du?”: Motive and Form in Schubert's A minor String Quartet’, Schubert the Progressive: History, Performance Practice, Analysis, ed. Brian Newbould (Aldershot, 2003), 81–8 (p. 81).

16 Graham Johnson, notes to Hyperion Schubert Edition, vol. 14, CDJ33014 (1992), 9.

17 Richard Kramer, Distant Cycles: Schubert and the Conceiving of Song (Chicago, IL, 1994), 53.

18 Rast, ‘“Schöne Welt wo bist du?”’, 86; Grove, Beethoven, Schubert, Mendelssohn, ed. Blom, 246.

19 Susan Wollenberg, Schubert's Fingerprints: Studies in the Instrumental Works (Aldershot, 2011), 201–2, note 11.

20 James William Sobaskie, ‘Tonal Implication and the Gestural Dialectic in Schubert's A minor Quartet’, Schubert the Progressive, ed. Newbould, 53–79.

21 Alfred Einstein, Schubert: The Man and his Music, trans. David Ascoli (London, 1951), 192. Also cf. Wollenberg, Schubert's Fingerprints, 24.

22 Jack A. Westrup, Schubert Chamber Music, BBC Music Guides (London, 1969), 31.

23 For further details concerning Rosamunde's sorry fate, see Elizabeth Norman McKay, Franz Schubert's Music for the Theatre (Tutzing, 1991), 271–4, 281–2.

24 Rosamunde: Drama in fünf Akten von Helmina von Chézy, Musik von Franz Schubert: Erstveröffentlichung der überarbeiteten Fassung, mit einem Nachwort und unbekannten Quellen, ed. Till Gerrit Waidelich (Tutzing, 1996), and Till Gerrit Waidelich, ‘Ein fragmentarischer autographer Entwurf zur Erstfassung von Chézys Schauspiel “Rosamunde”’, Schubert durch die Brille, Internationales Franz Schubert Institut, Mitteilungen, 18 (Tutzing, 1997), 46–57.

25 Chézy, Rosamunde (draft version), Act 1, scene i, lines 1–4; Waidelich, ‘Ein fragmentarischer autographer Entwurf’, 47.

26 Chézy, Rosamunde (revised version), Act 1, scene i, lines 3–10; Rosamunde: Drama in fünf Akten von Helmina von Chézy, ed. Waidelich, 83.

27 Chézy, Rosamunde (revised version), Act 1, scene i, lines 3–10; Rosamunde: Drama in fünf Akten von Helmina von Chézy, ed. Waidelich, 134–5. This scene forms Act 4, scene iv, in the revised five-act version, though contemporary accounts suggest it opened the four-act version that Schubert wrote for. The plot of this act certainly shows some variance from reports of the première (for instance, Rosamunde does not pretend to be mad for the benefit of the tyrannical Flugentius/Fluvio in Chézy's revision). See Franz Schubert: Dokumente 1817–1830, i: Texte: Programme, Rezensionen, Anzeigen, Nekrologe, Musikbeilagen und andere gedruckte Quellen, ed. Till Gerrit Waidelich (Tutzing, 1993), 173–80.

28 Sobaskie, ‘Tonal Implication and the Gestural Dialectic’, 55.

29 Reed, Schubert, 105, a compression of Schubert's letter to Franz von Schober, 21 September 1824, in Schubert: Die Dokumente seines Lebens, ed. Deutsch, 258–9; Deutsch, Schubert: A Documentary Biography, trans. Blom, 375.

30 Friedrich Schiller, ‘Die Götter Griechenlands’, Sämtliche Werke, 5 vols. (Munich, 1962), i, 168–72 (p. 172).

31 Su Yin Mak, ‘Schubert's Sonata Forms and the Poetics of the Lyric’, Journal of Musicology, 23 (2006), 263–306 (p. 294).

32 Westrup, Schubert Chamber Music, 32–3.

33 It is thus quite ironic that the clearest allusions to earlier works in the quartet are not to vocal parts but are in fact either to instrumental figures from songs (Gretchen in the first movement, Die Götter Griechenlands in the third) or an instrumental entr'acte (second movement); the only possible vocal allusion is to the ‘[wo] bist du?’ of D.677 in the first movement, and this is already quite distant.

34 Einstein, Schubert, 285.

35 Charles Fisk, Returning Cycles: Contexts for the Interpretation of Schubert's Impromptus and Last Sonatas (Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA, 2001), 80.

36 Although in this case the key of C♯ functions as a straightforward diatonic submediant, one is reminded of Taruskin's apt formulation that ‘the flat submediant often functions in “late Schubert” as a constant shadow to the tonic, so that the music seems perpetually to hover on that “edge” of inwardness’. Richard Taruskin, The Oxford History of Western Music, 6 vols. (Oxford, 2005), iii: The Nineteenth Century, 96.

37 Theodor W. Adorno, ‘Schubert (1928)’, trans. Jonathan Dunsby and Beate Perrey, 19th-Century Music, 29 (2005–6), 3–14 (p. 14).

38 John M. Gingerich, ‘Remembrance and Consciousness in Schubert's C-major String Quintet, D.956’, Musical Quarterly, 84 (2000), 619–34 (p. 629).

39 Schubert, letter to Ferdinand Schubert, 16–18 July 1824, in Deutsch, Schubert: Die Dokumente seines Lebens, ed. Deutsch, 250; Deutsch, Schubert: A Documentary Biography, trans. Blom, 363 (translation slightly modified).

40 Dahlhaus, ‘Sonata Form in Schubert’, 7.

41 Aristotle, On Memory, 449b14, 28, The Complete Works of Aristotle, ed. Barnes, i, 714.

42 John Daverio, ‘“One More Beautiful Memory of Schubert”: Schumann's Critique of the Impromptus, D.935’, Musical Quarterly, 84 (2000), 604–18 (p. 610).

43 Two classic instances in instrumental music and song respectively are Beethoven's Piano Sonata in E♭, op. 81a (‘Les adieux’ or ‘Lebewohl’), and Schubert's ‘Der Lindenbaum’ from Winterreise. This topic is masterfully explored by Charles Rosen in The Romantic Generation (London, 1996), 116–24.

44 Robert Hatten discusses the connection between pastoral topic and temporality in ‘From Topic to Premise and Mode: The Pastoral in Schubert's Piano Sonata in G major, D.894’, Interpreting Musical Gestures, Topics, and Tropes: Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert (Bloomington, IN, 2004), 53–67.

45 Carolyn Abbate, Unsung Voices: Opera and Musical Narrative in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton, NJ, 1991), 52–3.

46 The reference is to the second of McTaggart's three series – that denoting qualities of ‘earlier’ and ‘later’ without reference to notions of past, present or future (the ‘A’ series). See John McTaggart, ‘The Unreality of Time’, Mind, 68 (1908), 457–74.

47 See David Hugh Mellor, ‘The Unreality of Tense’, The Philosophy of Time, ed. Robin Le Poidevin and Murray MacBeath (Oxford, 1993), 47–59, and, for a general introduction to this topic, Questions of Time and Tense, ed. Robin Le Poidevin (Oxford, 1998). Stranger ideas are conceivable; just think of the invented idealist languages without nouns in Jorge Luis Borges's short story ‘Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius’ (The Garden of Forking Paths, 1941). On the complementary idea that grammatical tense might often have little to do with the experience of time, see Paul Ricoeur, Time and Narrative, trans. Kathleen Blamey and David Pellauer, 3 vols. (Chicago, IL, 1985), ii, 61–77.

48 See especially Andrew Bowie, Aesthetics and Subjectivity: From Kant to Nietzsche (Manchester, 2003), and Music, Philosophy, and Modernity (Cambridge, 2007).

49 For a complementary critique of Abbate's use of tense in music, see also the brief recent account by Leo Treitler in Reflections on Musical Meaning and its Representations (Bloomington, IN, 2011), 24–6.

50 Augustine, Confessions, 11.20.(26), trans. Henry Chadwick (Oxford, 1998), 235.

51 Aristotle, On Memory, 450b11–451a3, The Complete Works of Aristotle, ed. Barnes, i, 716.

52 The wax-imprint analogy was used earlier by Plato in the Theaetetus, 191c; see Plato, Complete Works, ed. John M. Cooper (Indianapolis, IN, and Cambridge, MA, 1997), 212. As Abbate goes on to note, citations of earlier music refer to artefacts from the past, but do not thereby create a past tense (Unsung Voices, 54).

53 Edmund Husserl, The Phenomenology of Internal Time Consciousness, trans. James Churchill (The Hague, 1964), § 28: ‘Memory and Figurative Consciousness – Memory as Positing Reproduction’, 83–4 (p. 83).

54 See George Berkeley, A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge (Harmondsworth, 1988), §§ 30, 33, pp. 63–4; David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (Harmondsworth, 1985), Bk I, Pt I, § III: ‘Of the Ideas of the Memory and Imagination’, 56–7. The idea is implicit in Locke but undeveloped there. Husserl's account offers some congruence with this view (see The Phenomenology of Internal Time Consciousness, § 21: ‘Levels of Clarity of Reproduction’, 71–2), but overall is more complex and would not translate easily for music (ibid., §§ 14–27 and Appendix III; and Edmund Husserl, Ideas Pertaining to a Pure Phenomenology and to a Phenomenological Philosophy: General Introduction to a Pure Phenomenology, trans. F. Kersten (The Hague, 1983), §§ 99–103, 141, pp. 243–51, 338–40).

55 Similar effects may be seen in cinema (which has also been said to possess no tense): black and white or soft focus gives the stylistic impression of pastness, blurring from one scene to another the movement between different temporal levels.

56 Although tense has just been forbidden, the pluperfect of Schiller's ‘Resignation’ is an irresistible (though probably spurious) analogy: ‘Auch ich war in Arkadia geboren.’

57 Einstein, Schubert, 285. Peter Pesic similarly notes the idea of D.960's opening as dreamlike, as if the music had been ongoing for some time (‘Schubert's Dream’, 19th-Century Music, 23 (1999–2000), 136–144 (p. 138)).

58 Hans Költzsch, Franz Schuberts Klaviersonaten (Leipzig, 1927), 77. Intentionally or otherwise, Költzsch raises the spectre of Kant in his terminology. The ironic implication would be that such a theme, being its own end or telos, may be aligned with the category of the aesthetic.

59 Dahlhaus, ‘Sonata Form in Schubert’, 8. Dahlhaus does, however, make the important proviso that the ‘teleological energy characteristic of Beethoven's contrasting derivation is surely not absent from Schubert, but is perceptibly weaker’.

60 Scott Burnham, ‘Schubert and the Sound of Memory’, Musical Quarterly, 84 (2000), 655–63 (pp. 661–3).

61 On the relation of form, thematicism, temporality, lyricism and logic in Schubert, see further the insightful accounts given by Poundie Burstein, ‘Lyricism, Structure, and Gender in Schubert's G major String Quartet’, Musical Quarterly, 81 (1997), 51–63, and Mak, ‘Schubert's Sonata Forms and the Poetics of the Lyric’.

62 I am using ‘tense’ in a broader, non-grammatical sense here to describe the A-series qualities of temporal modality – past, present, future. As noted earlier, memory is arguably not tensed in the specific linguistic meaning of the term, but somehow still carries connotations of pastness.

63 Suzannah Clark, Analyzing Schubert (Cambridge, 2011), 174; see further the same author's ‘On the Imagination of Tone in Schubert's Liedesend (D473), Trost (D523), and Gretchens Bitte (D564)’, The Oxford Handbook of Neo-Riemannian Theories, ed. Edward Gollin and Alexander Rehding (New York, 2011), 294–321.

64 Edward T. Cone, ‘Schubert's Promissory Note: An Exercise in Musical Hermeneutics’, 19th-Century Music, 5 (1981–2), 233–41 (p. 240), repr. in Schubert: Critical and Analytical Studies, ed. Walter Frisch (Lincoln, NE, 1986), 13–30 (p. 27).

65 Numerous examples of such reinterpretation of pitches and the general contours of melodic lines can be found throughout the movement, from the opening melody, its G♭ major recasting in bars 19–23, the C♯ minor transformation initiating the development (bars 117–21), and finally the sleight of hand in the recapitulation, bars 234–42, where following the earlier duality and the famous mirage of the retransition's bars 193–203 Schubert effects a seamless move from G♭ to A major by interchanging mid-phrase variants previously heard on 1̂ and 3̂. See on this last point the brief but perceptive account in Nicholas Marston, ‘Schubert's Homecoming’, Journal of the Royal Musical Association, 125 (2000), 248–70 (p. 258).

66 Clark, Analyzing Schubert, 181–2. This point obviously blurs the distinction between the listener's retention of pitch – ‘actual’ memory – and a figurative remembering of the ‘musical subject’.

67 Similarly, in the context of Beethoven's cyclic returns, Kristina Muxfeldt remarks that ‘it is the staging of the return as much as the return itself that invites us to hear the passage as a memory’ (‘Music Recollected in Tranquillity: Postures of Memory in Beethoven’, Vanishing Sensibilities: Essays in Reception and Historical Restoration – Schubert, Beethoven, Schumann (New York, 2011), 118–47 (p. 144)).

68 The procedure, moreover, is further reminiscent of the rondo finale in Beethoven's op. 31 no. 1, which, as scholars such as Cone and Rosen have demonstrated, was the model for Schubert's movement. Edward T. Cone, ‘Schubert's Beethoven’, Musical Quarterly, 56 (1970), 779–93 (pp. 782–7); Charles Rosen, The Classical Style (London, 1971), 456–8.

69 See Hans-Joachim Hinrichsen, ‘Die Sonatenform im Spätwerk Franz Schuberts’, Archiv für Musikwissenschaft, 45 (1988), 16–49 (pp. 47–8).

70 In D.929 the music works up (through alternating major and minor triads) by minor thirds built as diminished sevenths on the (non-present) functional roots IV, I and V respectively, viz. B–D–F (on A♭); F♯–A–C (on E♭); D♭–E–G (on B♭). The entire development section effectively prolongs the functional harmonic progression IV–I–V, but in a non-functional, unrecognizable manner. As a result, neo-Riemannian analysts invariably have a field day with this movement. Also see Scott Burnham's wonderfully apposite analysis of the finale of the G major Quartet in ‘Landscape as Music, Landscape as Truth: Schubert and the Burden of Repetition’, 19th-Century Music, 29 (2005–6), 31–41 (p. 36).

71 Abbate, Unsung Voices, 54.

72 The justification here is mildly circular, but meaning is inevitably socially constructed and circular.

73 For an overview of the concept of musical subjectivity, see Michael P. Steinberg, Listening to Reason: Culture, Subjectivity, and Nineteenth-Century Music (Princeton, NJ, 2004), 4–11, and Benedict Taylor, Mendelssohn, Time and Memory: The Romantic Conception of Cyclic Form (Cambridge, 2011), 26–31. Subjectivity is also a commonly encountered term within New Musicological accounts of Schubert: see, for instance, Susan McClary, ‘Constructions of Subjectivity in Schubert's Music’, Queering the Pitch: The New Gay and Lesbian Musicology, ed. Philip Brett, Elizabeth Wood and Gary Thomas (New York, 1994), 205–34, and Lawrence Kramer, Franz Schubert: Sexuality, Subjectivity, Song (Cambridge, 2003).

74 See Julian M. Johnson, ‘The Subjects of Music: A Theoretical and Analytical Enquiry into the Construction of Subjectivity in the Musical Structuring of Time’ (D.Phil. dissertation, University of Sussex, 1994), 25–49; Sisman, ‘Memory and Invention at the Threshold of Beethoven's Late Style’; and Muxfeldt, ‘Music Recollected in Tranquillity’.

75 Cyclic works that transform material (such as the ‘Wanderer’ Fantasy) are already less likely to be heard as forming memories; if anything, their procedures of thematic development suggest orientation towards the future. There are many other examples of references, allusions and echoes between movements in Schubert (see Martin Chusid, ‘Schubert's Cyclic Compositions of 1824’, Acta musicologica, 36 (1964), 37–45). The close of the Piano Sonata in A, D.959, is one of the clearest: it returns in retrograde to the chord progression opening its first movement, a palindromic conception which seems rather too objective, too architectural, for memory metaphors.

76 Burnham, ‘Schubert and the Sound of Memory’, 662–3.

77 Charles Rosen offers an insightful discussion of this correlation between music, time, memory, landscape and expression, citing a review by Schiller describing how music, like landscape painting, represents feelings through its form, not (as in earlier aesthetics) through its content. As Hegel would later claim, for Schiller ‘the entire effect of music […] consists in accompanying and making perceptible the inner movements of the spirit analogously through outer ones’ (The Romantic Generation, 126–31 (p. 127)). Cf. Hegel: ‘The chief task of music consists in making resound, not the objective world itself, but, on the contrary, the manner in which the inmost self is moved to the depths of its personality and conscious soul’ (Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Aesthetics: Lectures on Fine Art, trans. Thomas Malcolm Knox, 2 vols. (Oxford, 1975), ii, 891; my emphasis).

78 This is consciously alluding to the light–shadow/major–minor analogy that threads its way throughout Schubert reception. A pertinent early example may be found in Grove: ‘With Schubert the minor mode seems to be synonymous with trouble, and the major with relief; and the mere mention of the sun, or a smile, or any other emblem of gladness, is sure to make him modulate. Some such image was floating before his mind when he made the beautiful change to A major near the beginning of the A minor Quartet’ (Beethoven, Schubert, Mendelssohn, ed. Blom, 246). The image also evinces a close connection with landscape metaphors (see below).

79 Schiller, ‘Resignation’, verses 2, 18, Sämtliche Werke, i, 129–32 (pp. 129, 131).

80 This structure is indeed normalized in the recapitulation by excising the redundant second antecedent, the result being a curiously balanced – or even dualistic – pairing of minor–major periodic subphrases. Burnham speaks of this deliberate redundancy in Schubert's music in the context of how he seems to make a virtue out of sheer length. Scott Burnham, ‘The “Heavenly Length” of Schubert's Music’, Ideas, 6/1 (1999), <http://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/ideasv61/burnham.htm>, accessed 29 October 2013. Of course a more technical wording of this point might praise Schubert for his manipulation of phrase structure: by using a series of lyrical but open-ended forms Schubert succeeds in creating a dynamic harmonic tension while maintaining a constant lyricism.

81 Einstein helpfully avers that Schubert was ‘thinking of death’ here (Schubert, 285).

82 Cone, ‘Schubert's Promissory Note’, 28. On this topic of wandering and fatalism, see, for instance, William Kinderman, ‘Schubert's Tragic Perspective’, Schubert: Critical and Analytical Studies, ed. Frisch, 65–83; idem, ‘Wandering Archetypes in Schubert's Instrumental Music’, 19th-Century Music, 21 (1997–8), 208–22; Fisk, Returning Cycles, esp. chapter 3, ‘The Wanderer's Tracks’ (pp. 60–80); and Jeffrey Perry, ‘The Wanderer's Many Returns: Schubert's Variations Reconsidered’, Journal of Musicology, 19 (2002), 374–416.

83 Taruskin claims this last instance – probably Schubert's must beloved melody – could even be excised completely from the music with no functional loss (The Oxford History of Western Music, iii, 110).

84 Charles Rosen, ‘Schubert's Inflections of Classical Form’, The Cambridge Companion to Schubert, ed. Gibbs, 72–98 (p. 77). The Gretchen parallel is apt for the A minor Quartet's opening movement, which similarly comes to a shuddering climax over a diminished seventh at its midpoint (bar 140).

85 Hatten, ‘From Topic to Premise and Mode’, 55. One of innumerable examples is provided by Reinhold Hammerstein with specific reference to Die Götter Griechenlands: ‘The minor normally represents grey reality, the banality of the present, pain and suffering; the major, in contradistinction, the world of beauty, of dreams, former happiness and lost love, and not least the consolation of death’ (‘“Schöne Welt, wo bist du?”: Schiller, Schubert und die Götter Griechenlands’, Musik und Dichtung: Neue Forschungsbeiträge (Festschrift Viktor Pöschl zum 80. Geburtstag), ed. Michael von Albrecht and Werner Schubert (Frankfurt am Main, 1990), 305–30 (p. 314)).

86 Kristina Muxfeldt: ‘Schubert's Songs: The Transformation of a Genre’, The Cambridge Companion to Schubert, ed. Gibbs, 121–37 (pp. 137, 126). On this temporal sense in Schubert's lieder, above all in Winterreise, see further Anthony Newcomb, ‘Structure and Expression in a Schubert Song: Noch einmal Auf dem Flusse zu hören’, Schubert: Critical and Analytical Studies, ed. Frisch, 153–74. Barbara R. Barry, in ‘“Sehnsucht” and Melancholy: Explorations of Time and Structure in Schubert's Winterreise’, The Philosopher's Stone: Essays in the Transformation of Musical Structure (Hillsdale, NY, 2000), 181–203 (pp. 190–1), offers a brief but useful account of differing levels of time in Winterreise – Physical (external, regular ‘norm’), Experiential (internal, psychological/subjective), Remembered (‘Proustian’) and Suspended (‘where divisions of time through events and experiences are no longer real, and the modalities of past and future have dissolved into a continuous present’).

87 Burnham, ‘The “Heavenly Length” of Schubert's Music’. Also see Susan Wollenberg, ‘Schubert's Transitions’, Schubert Studies, ed. Brian Newbould (Aldershot, 1998), 16–61, who categorizes the different, often ‘magical’ or special ways in which Schubert gets from one place to another.

88 Taruskin, The Oxford History of Western Music, iii, 92–3.

89 Mak, ‘Schubert's Sonata Forms and the Poetics of the Lyric’, 301–2.

90 See, for instance, Karol Berger, ‘Beethoven and the Aesthetic State’, Beethoven Forum VII (1999), 17–44.

91 Laurence Sterne, The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman, i (1759), chapter 14; Mark Evan Bonds, ‘The Spatial Representation of Musical Form’, Journal of Musicology, 27 (2010), 265–307 (pp. 281–2).

92 Grove, Beethoven, Schubert, Mendelssohn, ed. Blom, 241.

93 Adorno, ‘Schubert’, trans. Dunsby and Perrey, 7, 10.

94 Dahlhaus, ‘Sonata Form in Schubert’, 2. (Cf. Rainer Maria Rilke, Das Stundenbuch, ‘Das Buch vom mönchischen Leben’, lines 13–14: ‘in wachsenden Ringen, / die sich über die Dinge ziehn’.)

95 Mak, ‘Schubert's Sonata Forms and the Poetics of the Lyric’, 303; Burnham, ‘The “Heavenly Length” of Schubert's Music’.

96 See Rosen's excellent account in The Romantic Generation, 124–204, esp. p. 194.

97 Alfred Brendel, ‘Schubert's Last Sonatas’, Alfred Brendel on Music: Collected Essays (London, 2007), 153–215 (p. 161). I use the singular form in place of Brendel's ‘landscapes’, as may be found in an earlier manifestation of the essay in The New York Review (2 February 1989, 33). To wander twice through two different (albeit similar) landscapes would entail four traversals. Three would be plausible, as the exposition may be repeated, but – with the exception of the beautiful opening movement of the earlier A major Sonata, D.664 – the second halves of Schubert's sonata movements are generally not (and certainly not by Brendel).

98 Burnham, ‘The “Heavenly Length” of Schubert's Music’.

99 Donald Francis Tovey, ‘Franz Schubert’, Essays and Lectures on Music, ed. Hubert Foss (London, 1949), 103–33 (p. 119).

100 Brendel, ‘Schubert's Last Sonatas’, 154.

101 Adorno, ‘Schubert’, 10.

102 On the trill's ‘otherness’ or alterity, see the consideration by Charles Fisk in ‘What Schubert's Last Sonata Might Hold’, Music and Meaning, ed. Jenefer Robinson (Ithaca, NY, and London, 1997), 179–200. It should be noted here that the original version of the theme in Schubert's draft manuscript was actually written without the first G♭ trill (Marston, ‘Schubert's Homecoming’, 255).

103 On this idea of musical space and its relationship with the temporal dimension, see Robert P. Morgan, ‘Musical Time / Musical Space’, Critical Inquiry, 6 (1980), 527–38. A personal musing on conceptions of time and space in Schubert may be found in Dieter Schnebel, ‘Klangräume – Zeitklänge: Zweiter Versuch über Schubert’, Musik-Konzepte Franz Schubert, ed. Metzger and Riehn, 67–88.

104 Henri Bergson, Time and Free Will: An Essay on the Immediate Data of Consciousness, trans. Frank Lubecki Pogson (London, 1910). Of course, the Einsteinian conceptions of space-time alluded to above are incompatible with Bergson's theories.

105 Henri Bergson, Matter and Memory, trans. Nancy Margaret Paul and W. Scott Palmer (London, 1911).

106 See Brendel's oft-cited comparison: Schubert composes ‘like a sleepwalker […]. In Beethoven's music we never lose our bearings, we always know where we are; Schubert, on the other hand, puts us into a dream’ (‘Form and Psychology in Beethoven's Piano Sonatas’, Alfred Brendel on Music, 42–57 (p. 45); cf. ‘Schubert's Last Sonatas’, 165); further, Susan Wollenberg, ‘Schubert and the Dream’, Studi musicali, 9 (1980), 135–50; Pesic, ‘Schubert's Dream’; and Fisk, Returning Cycles.

107 Cone, ‘Schubert's Promissory Note’, 26. Cone is describing the Moment musical in A♭, op. 94 no. 6, in connection with a hypothetical real-life explanation for this ‘vice’ based on Schubert's contracting of syphilis. Cone's reading seems remarkably prophetic of the controversy that would follow the publication of Maynard Solomon's article ‘Franz Schubert and the Peacocks of Benvenuto Cellini’, 19th-Century Music, 12 (1988–9), 193–206. According to the reader's preference, the shimmer of G♭, Taruskin's purple flat submediant, may shine a lighter hue in my following account.

108 Cone, ‘Schubert's Promissory Note’, 26.

109 See Sigmund Freud, ‘Remembering, Repeating, and Working-Through’, The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, trans. James Strachey, 22 vols. (London, 1953–74), xii (1955), 150: ‘The patient reproduces it not as a memory but as an action; he repeats it, without, of course, knowing that he is repeating it.’

110 Fisk, Returning Cycles, 78–9.

111 Cone, ‘Schubert's Promissory Note’, 27.

112 Marston, ‘Schubert's Homecoming’, 265.

113 Robert Schumann, Gesammelte Schriften über Musik und Musiker, ed. Martin Kreisig, 2 vols. (Leipzig, 1949), i, 206.

114 Jugendbriefe von Robert Schumann, ed. Clara Schumann (Leipzig, 1886), 82–3, cited by Daverio, ‘One More Beautiful Memory of Schubert’, 604.

115 Burnham, ‘The “Heavenly Length” of Schubert's Music’.

116 Burnham, ‘Landscape as Music, Landscape as Truth’, 36. Recent interest in the relationship between music, landscape and subjectivity is prodigious; a good starting point may be found in Daniel Grimley, Grieg: Music, Landscape and Norwegian Identity (Woodbridge, 2006), and the colloquy on ecomusicology contained in Journal of the American Musicological Society, 64 (2011), 391–424.

117 Burnham, ‘Schubert and the Sound of Memory’, 657.