¹ Burghers in particular held high posts in the judiciary. The most distinguished was undoubtedly Sir Richard Morgan, the Queen's advocate who enjoyed the close confidence of Governor Sir Hercules Robinson (1867–1872) and his successor Sir William Gregory (1872–1877).

² B. B. Misra, The Indian middle classes, 284 ff.

³ C.O. 54/476, Gregory to Kimberley, 70 of 7th June, 1872; C.O. 54/542, Secret despatch, Sir James Longden to Kimberley, 25th December, 1882; C.O. 54/547, Longden to the Earl of Derby, 219 of 10th May, 1883.

⁴ In the period 1865–1871 there were no less than four major debates in the Western, Southern, and Central provinces. The most famous debate, however, occurred in August 1873 in Panadura, a suburb of Colombo.

⁵ Olcott, H. S., Old diary leaves (ODL), II, 315.Google Scholar

⁶ Ibid., I, 403 ff., 477; Olcott, A collection of lectures on Theosophy and archaic religions delivered in India and Ceylon, 34.

Of these two famous Buddhist monks of the period the great Buddhist figure was Gunananda, whose oratorical skill even the missionaries could scarce forbear to admire. His antipathy to Christianity was so great that his criticisms were considered intemperate and even scurrilous. His genius was that of a propagandist rather than that of an organizer. Nevertheless he worked closely with Olcott. Olcott was immediately impressed by Gunananda and noted that his demeanour contrasted strongly with the mildness of the average Buddhist monk: ODL, II, 157.

Sri Sumangala, who played a prominent part in Buddhist affairs, was in many ways the antithesis of Gunananda. As a scholar he enjoyed a great reputation in Ceylon and abroad. He founded the Vidyodaya Pirivena, which became the leading institution for the study of Pali and Sanskrit. He was able to exert some influence on official policies on account of the esteem in which he was held.

⁷ ODL, II, 1 ff.

⁸ Ibid., 97 ff.

⁹ Ibid., 93 ff.

¹⁰ Ibid., 152.

¹¹ Ibid., 158.

¹² Ibid., 165 ff.

¹³ The Rev. S. Coles to C. C. Fenn, 26th November, 1880 (C.M.S. archives); J. Murdoch, Light for India, 54 ff.

¹⁴ ODL, II, 167 ff.

¹⁵ Murdoch, op. cit.; the Rev. H. Kannanger, Annual Letter, 27th November, 1880 (C.M.S. archives).

¹⁶ ODL, II, 168.

¹⁷ Ibid., 157.

¹⁸ Ibid., 160.

¹⁹ Ibid., III, 205 ff.

²⁰ Ibid., I, 306 ff.

²¹ C. W. Leadbeater, An outline of Theosophy, 16 ff. Olcott believed that Buddha was “a master adept” (ODL, II, 169). There were several adepts according to Theosophism. To the Buddhists, the Buddha was a “unique” being. It is also significant that Olcott should remark that Medankara was almost alone among Buddhist priests in Ceylon in his belief in the existence of the Mahatmas (ibid., III, 387).

²² Olcott, A collection of lectures.

²³ ODL, III, 168.

²⁴ Ibid., II, 277 ff.; III, 429 ff.

²⁵ Ibid., I, 394 ff. At the Theosophical anniversary held in Bombay in November 1879, Olcott made the following observation: “… and absent too is that most beloved teacher of ours, that elder brother, so erudite, so good, so courageous, Swamiji Dayanand Saraswati. Were he but here, nothing would be left t o desire.” (Olcott, Collection, loc. cit.)

²⁶ ODL, II, 168.

²⁷ The Rev. S. Coles to C. C. Fenn, 26th November, 1880 (C.M.S. archives).

²⁸ Sarasavi Sandaresa, 16th November, 1883.

²⁹ Report on the Cotta District, 30th September, 1881 (C.M.S. archives).

³⁰ ODL, II, 165.

³¹ Olcott, A collection of lectures.

³² A. P. Sinnett, Incidents in the life of Madame Blavatsky, 222 ff.

³³ ODL, II, 175, 181.

³⁴ Ibid., 190 ff.; the Rev. S. Coles to C. C. Fenn, 26th November, 1880 (C.M.S. archives); Minutes of proceedings of the third meeting of the provincial Council of Ceylon, 21st January, 1881 (ibid.).

³⁵ ODL, III, 205 ff.

³⁶ Ibid., II, 165.

³⁷ A collection of lectures, 3rd 06, 1880, Colombo.Google Scholar

³⁸ Ibid., 11th June, 1880, Kandy.

³⁹ Ibid., 3rd June, 1880, Colombo.

⁴⁰ ODL, II, 169–199.

⁴¹ Ibid. The Theosophical Society in Colombo, which later came to be known as the Buddhist Theosophical Society, was considered the most important of the Theosophical societies in the Island.

⁴² Ibid., 202 ff.

⁴³ Ibid. The Sinhalese kings traditionally endowed the Buddhist temples with lands for the well-being of the priests and for the maintenance of the temple buildings. When the British completed the conquest of the island in 1815 these endowments were found primarily in those territories which had belonged to the Kandyan kingdom, where unlike the maritime districts Sinhalese power had survived. Broadly these endowments fell into two categories. The vihara or Buddhist temples had been endowed with lands which were known as viharagam. The Kandyan Kings had also endowed the dewala—shrines built for Hindu gods—with dewalagam lands. As it was considered improper for Buddhist priests to have worldly possessions, the endowments were traditionally managed by committees of laymen. By the 19th century, however, these committees had practically ceased to exist. Moreover it was found that they had no basis in law. The priests regarded temple properties as their own and resorted to leases and outright sales.

⁴⁴ ODL, II, 179.

⁴⁵ Ibid., 299.

⁴⁶ Schools attached to Buddhist temples. The Legislative Council Sub-Committee on education rejected the pansala schools as a medium for elementary education, which the government could take in hand. The Committee declared that the pansala schools were “not as numerous as they once were”. But it was only in 1897 that a proper survey of these schools was made. In that year the number of pansala schools was given as 1,516. In 1872 the Government was anxious to attract as many schools as possible into the grant-aided scheme. The Government therefore made provision for small schools in rural areas to obtain grants. It was hoped that the pansala schools would avail themselves of the change. But from the point of view of the pansalas the scheme was not satisfactory.

⁴⁷ This idea was particularly prevalent during the time of the Buddhist Temporalities Commission, which was appointed by Sir William Gregory to find a solution to the problem of the malversation of temple properties by priests and laymen.

⁴⁸ ODL, II, 299.

⁴⁹ Sarasavi Sandaresa, 16th November, 1883; also speech of delegates from Ceylon, in Abeywardana, T. P., A full report of the Seventh Anniversary Meeting of the Theosophical Society, 27th 11, 1882.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ Even in the early 70's energetic anti-missionary Buddhists had begun to establish Buddhist schools. It must, however, be admitted that Buddhist educational enthusiasm was short-lived. By 1880 there were only four Buddhist schools receiving Government assistance.

⁵¹ ODL, II, 295.

⁵² Ibid., 370–390.

⁵³ Ibid., III, 353.

⁵⁴ Sarasavi Sandaresa (SS), 10th February, 1882.

⁵⁵ Ibid.; SS, 8th September, 29th September, 1882, 27th February, 1885.

⁵⁶ SS, 14th July, 1882.

⁵⁷ SS, 10th October, 1884.

⁵⁸ SS, 27th February, 1885; ODL, II, 308, 370 ff.

⁵⁹ ODL, II, 318.

⁶⁰ Ibid., 371.

⁶¹ SS, 10th October, 1884.

⁶² ODL, II, 203.

⁶³ SS, 10th October, 1884.

⁶⁴ SS, 8th September, 1882.

⁶⁵ SS, 7th December, 1883.

⁶⁶ SS, 27th February, 1885.

⁶⁷ SS, 16th November, 1883.

⁶⁸ SS, 11th September, 1885.

⁶⁹ There is no sign of a single Buddhist, not even a scholarly monk like Sri Sumangala or Waskaduwe Subhuti, being called upon to give evidence to the Education Committee of 1865. In 1870 the Government passed the Service Tenure Ordinance. This concerned the condition of tenants living in temple lands. Traditionally these tenants performed certain services in lieu of the payment of a money rent. These services were of a religious nature. The Ordinance gave the tenants the option of substituting money payments for services. Buddhist leaders protested unsuccessfully during and after the passage of the Ordinance, which they claimed was motivated by considerations other than a disinterested concern for the temple tenants. Indeed the evidence shows that certain officials who agitated for the enactment of this ordinance felt that it would facilitate the spread of Christianity.

⁷⁰ The missionaries too used the term “Buddhists” indiscriminately.

⁷¹ There was a certain amount of support for the Service Tenure Ordinance from the tenants themselves. Among the Buddhists its most ardent supporters were certain Buddhist landowners who were buying the holdings of traditional tenants but were unwilling to perform the traditional services.

⁷² ODL, II, 296 ff.

⁷³ M. D. Raghvan, The Karava of Ceylon, 136 ff.

⁷⁴ Ibid. It is significant that these delegates should have been sent by just those castes which were advancing economically.

⁷⁵ ODL, II, 296.

⁷⁶ Ibid., 200 ff.

⁷⁷ Ibid., III, 136 ff.

⁷⁸ A collection of lectures, 11th 06, 1880, Kandy.Google Scholar

⁷⁹ ODL, II, 201.

⁸⁰ Ibid., 321.

⁸¹ Ibid., 202.

⁸² The nominal heads of the Buddhist church were the chief priests of Asgiriya and Malwatte in Kandy.

⁸³ Raghvan, op. cit.

⁸⁴ Ibid.

⁸⁵ ODL, II, 297 ff.; III, 399.

⁸⁶ R. S. Copleston, Buddhism primitive and present in Magadha and in Ceylon, 432 ff.

⁸⁷ ODL, III, 399.

⁸⁸ Ibid., II, 296.

⁸⁹ SS, 25th April, 1884; ODL, II, 203; III, 387.

⁹⁰ SS, 25th April, 1884.

⁹¹ SS, 2nd May, 1884.

⁹² SS, 6th June, 1884.

⁹³ Ibid.Sandaresa listed the various current controversies which had the effect of keeping alight the differences between the Siamese and Amarapura sects.

⁹⁴ SS, 7th September, 1883.

⁹⁵ SS, 7th November, 1884.

⁹⁶ SS, 23rd November, 1883.

⁹⁷ ODL, II, 202.

⁹⁸ Ibid., 69 ff.

⁹⁹ Ibid., 320.

¹⁰⁰ Ibid., III, 404.

¹⁰¹ Ibid., II, 180 ff.

¹⁰² SS, 21st August, 1885. Ratemahatmayas were subordinate native district officials in the Kandyan areas. They usually belonged to socially prestigious families.

¹⁰³ SS, 10th February, 1882.

¹⁰⁴ SS, November 1882. Literally “the society for aiding the Sasana” or the Buddhist religion.

¹⁰⁵ Ibid.

¹⁰⁶ SS, 19th October, 1883.

¹⁰⁷ SS, 21st November, 1884; 5th June, 2nd October, 9th October, 1885.

¹⁰⁸ The majority of the English, Anglo-vernacular, and vernacular schools were in the Western Province. The missionaries who agitated for the introduction of a grant-aided scheme in 1865 criticized the existing system of education partly on this ground.

¹⁰⁹ C.O. 57/82, Report of the Director of Public Instruction. See appendix E-VIII. In the island as a whole only one in every 34 went to school. The population of the island was 2,758,529.

¹¹⁰ The majority of the English schools established by the Government were in the Western Province either in Colombo or in the neighbouring towns of Negombo, Kalutara, and Panadura.

¹¹¹ C.O. 57/82, Report of the Director of Public Instruction, 1880, p. 25c, also p. 19c; Rept. Dir. P.I., 1879, p. 19c.

¹¹² Bryce Ryan, Caste in modern Ceylon, 106 ff.

¹¹³ This was precisely what Sarasavi Sandaresa was trying to remove from the consciousness of the Sinhalese. It is possible that the Durava caste, whose traditional occupation was the tapping of palm trees for liquor, also benefited from the importance which the Government attached to this industry.

¹¹⁴ SS, 8th September, 1882.

¹¹⁵ SS, 6th October, 1882.

¹¹⁶ Ibid.

¹¹⁷ SS, 1st May, 1885.

¹¹⁸ SS, 18th January, 1884.

¹¹⁹ SS, September 1882.

¹²⁰ SS, 22nd September, 1882.

¹²¹ SS, 6th October, 1882.

¹²² SS, 3rd August, 1883.

¹²³ The missionaries, especially the C.M.S. and the Wesleyans, published a great many pamphlets in Sinhalese attacking Buddhism. The Buddhists were moved to retaliate by establishing a printing press in Galle with the help of the King of Siam. They began to publish a Buddhist newspaper, the Lakminipahana, which had to be discontinued in 1867 on account of financial difficulties. In September 1867, however, a second newspaper, the Satya Margaya, appeared. Its editor Migetuwatte Gunananda explained categorically that this newspaper had been set up to counter Christian propaganda.

¹²⁴ SS, 10th August, 1883.

¹²⁵ SS, 23rd November, 1883; 11th January, 25th January, 1884. One sees here an interesting parallel with the Swadeshi movement in India.

¹²⁶ SS, 20th February, 1885.

¹²⁷ SS, 26th September, 1885.

¹²⁸ SS, 15th August, 1884; 20th February, 1885.

¹²⁹ Ibid.

¹³⁰ SS, 12th October, 1883; 15th August, 1884. The titles of Mudaliyar and Muhandiram for the low country were conferred on certain individuals by the Governor on the advice of the Government Agent of the province, as much for considerations of specific service and merit as for “good descent”.

¹³¹ SS, 15th August, 1884.

¹³² Ibid.

¹³³ SS, 6th October, 1882; 4th July, 1884.

¹³⁴ SS, 14th November, 1884.

¹³⁵ SS, 16th January, 1885.

¹³⁶ SS, 6th October, 1882.

¹³⁷ SS, 30th October, 1885.

¹³⁸ SS, 5th May, 1882; 25th July, 1884; 18th September, 1885.

¹³⁹ SS, 25th July, 1884.

¹⁴⁰ SS, 4th April, 1884.

¹⁴¹ SS, 23rd May, 1884.

¹⁴² SS, 10th October, 1884.

¹⁴³ SS, 15th August, 1884.

¹⁴⁴ SS, 3rd July, 1885.

¹⁴⁵ SS, 8th August, 17th October, 1884.

¹⁴⁶ SS, 6th February, 6th March, 1885.

¹⁴⁷ SS, 2nd May, 1884.

¹⁴⁸ SS, 6th January, 1882.

¹⁴⁹ The Ayurvedic physicians' financial contribution to the movement was negligible and even their advertisements in the Sandaresa were few and far between.

¹⁵⁰ Olcott thought that the Sinhalese as a race were less gifted than the Indians. This was one of several reasons for not making Ceylon the headquarters for the Theosophical Society.

¹⁵¹ A collection of lectures, 29th 10, 1880, Amritsar.Google Scholar

¹⁵² ODL, III, 255.

¹⁵³ A collection of lectures, 11th 06, 1880, Kandy.Google Scholar

¹⁵⁴ An interesting attitude, since the Buddhists themselves had begun to restore ancient Buddhist monuments in Anuradhapura.

¹⁵⁵ SS, 13th October, 1882.

¹⁵⁶ A collection of lectures, 3rd June, 1880.

¹⁵⁷ Administration Reports 1871: Report of the District Judge, Badulla. See also Major Thomas Skinner, Fifty years in Ceylon, 219 ff., for very useful comments.

¹⁵⁸ SS, 13th October, 1882.

¹⁵⁹ Ibid.

¹⁶⁰ SS, 6th November, 1884.

¹⁶¹ SS, 13th October, 1882.

¹⁶² Administration Reports 1870: Report on the Kegalle District, p. 262; Report of the District Judge, Kurunegala, p. 256; Report of the District Judge, Kandy, pp. 242 ff.; Administration Reports 1871: Report of the District Judge, Galle, p. 308.

¹⁶³ SS, 3rd July, 1885.

¹⁶⁴ SS, 17th July, 1885.

¹⁶⁵ SS, 3rd July, 1885.

¹⁶⁶ SS, 12th October, 1883; 13th February, 1885. According to Sandaresa, during the early period of British rule in Ceylon the Buddhists were reluctant to let their children learn English lest they become addicted to Christianity, beef-eating, and liquor, Later, economic factors compelled them to learn English: SS, 2nd May, 1884.

¹⁶⁷ SS, 13th October, 1882.

¹⁶⁸ SS, 20th January, 1882.

¹⁶⁹ Ibid.

¹⁷⁰ SS, 21st September, 1883.

¹⁷¹ SS, 10th March, 5th May, 25th August, 1882.

¹⁷² SS, 5th March, 10th March, 25th March, 1882.

¹⁷³ SS, 10th August, 1883.

¹⁷⁴ SS, 20th January, 1882.

¹⁷⁵ SS, 7th April, 1882; 3rd August, 1883.

¹⁷⁶ SS, 10th March, 1882.

¹⁷⁷ SS, 17th February, 1882.

¹⁷⁸ SS, 3rd August, 1883.

¹⁷⁹ SS, 16th May, 1884; 2nd January, 1885.

¹⁸⁰ SS, 14th September, 1883.

¹⁸¹ Ibid.

¹⁸² SS, 3rd February, 1882.

¹⁸³ SS, 30th November, 1883.

¹⁸⁴ SS, 17th February, 1882; 12th October, 1883.

¹⁸⁵ SS, 12th October, 1883.

¹⁸⁶ SS, 10th February, 1882; 21st August, 1885.

¹⁸⁷ SS, 12th October, 1883.

¹⁸⁸ Ibid.; SS, 14th December, 1883.

¹⁸⁹ SS, 13th January, 1882.

¹⁹⁰ SS, 17th October, 1884; 20th February, 20th March, 1885.

¹⁹¹ SS, 13th January, 1882.

¹⁹² The destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah was a typical example.

¹⁹³ SS, 25th July, 8th August, 1884.

¹⁹⁴ SS, 1st August, 1884.

¹⁹⁵ SS, 28th April, 6th October, 1882.

¹⁹⁶ ODL, II, 168.

¹⁹⁷ Ibid., 316.

¹⁹⁸ Olcott, A Buddhist catechism, preface.

¹⁹⁹ Basnayake Nilames were the principal lay custodians of the devala. SS, 18th September, 1885.

²⁰⁰ Copleston, Buddhism …, 433 ff.

²⁰¹ SS, 5th September, 12th September, 1884; 6th March, 1885.

²⁰² Ibid.

²⁰³ ODL, III, 136 ff.

²⁰⁴ SS, 5th September, 12th September, 1884; 6th March, 1885.

²⁰⁵ ODL, III, 136 ff.

²⁰⁶ Lakminipahana, 23rd August, 13th September, 1865; Satya Margaya, 6th June, 21st November, 1868.

²⁰⁷ SS, 10th August, 1883; 30th January, 19th June, 1885.

²⁰⁸ SS, 13th October, 1882.

²⁰⁹ SS, 3rd February, 1882.

²¹⁰ Administration Reports 1871: Report on the Central Province, p. 47.

²¹¹ Ibid., Report on the Western Province, p. 9.

²¹² Ibid., Report on the Kegalle District, p. 29.

²¹³ Ibid., Report on the Matale District, p. 56.

²¹⁴ SS, 13th October, 1882; 27th June, 1884.

²¹⁵ SS, 13th October, 1882.

²¹⁶ SS, 4th September, 1885.

²¹⁷ SS, 11th January, 1884.

²¹⁸ SS, 11th April, 1884.

²¹⁹ SS, 20th June, 10th July, 1885.

²²⁰ SS, 20th June, 1885.

²²¹ SS, 23rd November, 1883; 29th February, 29th June, 1884.

²²² SS, 29th February, 1884.

²²³ Ibid. Gordon was Governor of Ceylon from 1883 to 1890.

²²⁴ SS, 10th February, 10th November, 1882.

²²⁵ SS, 7th March, 1884.

²²⁶ SS, 29th February, 1884.

²²⁷ SS, 18th January, 1884.

²²⁸ SS, 4th April, 1884.

²²⁹ SS, 15th February, 31st October, 1884.

²³⁰ C.O. 54/546, Longden to the Earl of Derby, 136 of 2nd April, 1883.

²³¹ C.O. 54/548, J. Douglas actg. Lieut, governor to Derby, 9 of 14th July, 1883. See enclosures for minutes of Executive Council of 9th July, 1883.

²³² C.O. 54/547, Longden to Derby, 306 of 26th June, 1883. See enclosure for full report of the Riot Commission.

²³³ SS, 20th June, 3rd August, 1883.

²³⁴ ODL, III, 71 ff., 112 ff. For an account of the Buddhist meetings of 27th January see C.O. 54/556, Olcott to Derby, 17th May, 1884.

²³⁵ C.O. 54/552, Gordon to Derby, 51 of 18th February, 1884; C.O. 54/556, Olcott to Derby, 17th May, 1884.

²³⁶ Ibid.

²³⁷ C.O. 54/547, Longden to Derby, 306 of 26th June, 1883. See minutes.

²³⁸ C.O. 54/556, Derby to Gordon, 192 of 17th June, 1884.

²³⁹ C.O. 54/554, Gordon to Derby, 330 of 29th August, 1884.