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The Mongol Empire – the first ‘gunpowder empire’?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 August 2013

STEPHEN G. HAW
STEPHEN G. HAW*
Affiliation:
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Abstract

This article uses Chinese sources to argue that a range of gunpowder weapons was already in use in China during the late tenth and early eleventh centuries, earlier than previously thought. ‘True firearms’, that is cannon or guns firing solid projectiles, had quite probably been developed by at least as early as 1200 ce.

Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society , Volume 23 , Issue 3 , July 2013 , pp. 441 - 469
Copyright
Copyright © The Royal Asiatic Society 2013 

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References

Bibliography

This bibliography is in two main sections, the first further subdivided into two. This first section includes all those works consulted that are written in Chinese. It gives the Chinese characters of names of authors and editors, titles and publishers. In accordance with common usage, pre-modern works (written in Classical Chinese) are listed separately from modern Chinese works. The former are cited in the references by abbreviations derived from their titles. The date given in parenthesis after the author's name is that of first completion of the text. The date of publication of the edition consulted is given at the end of the citation. In a number of cases, more than one edition of the same work has been consulted. This has been noted only when it seemed useful to do so. Names of Chinese authors of modern works in Chinese are cited in full in the references. Those writing in English are cited by initials and surname only. The second section of this bibliography lists works in European and other languages.

1: Works in Chinese

BZJ: Rong, Yang 楊榮 (1424) Bei Zheng Ji 北征記, in Xu Xiu Si Ku Quan Shu 續修四庫全書, vol. 433, Shanghai 上海: Guji Chubanshe 古籍出版社, n.d.Google Scholar
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QJJ: Yun, Wang 王惲 (c. 1300) Qiu Jian Ji 秋澗集, in SKQS, CD 415, book no. 4561.Google Scholar
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XJXZ: [Author unknown] (c. 1230) Xing Jun Xu Zhi 行軍须知, in Zhongguo Bingshu Jicheng 中國兵書集成, vol. 5, Beijing: Jiefangjun Chubanshe 解放軍出版社, 1988.Google Scholar
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YS: Lian, Song 宋濂 et al. (c. 1370) Yuan Shi 元史, 15 vols, Beijing 北京: Zhonghua Shuju 中華書局, 1976; and Zhonghua Lishi Wenku 中華歷史文庫 electronic edition on CD-Rom (based on the Bai Na Ben 百納本 edition), Beijing: Yinguan Dianzi Chuban Youxian Gongsi 銀冠電子出版有限公司, n.d.Google Scholar
YWLJ: Wanli, Yang 楊萬里, (2007) Yang Wanli Ji Jianjiao 楊萬里集箋校, ed. Xin Gengru 辛更儒, 10 vols, Beijing 北京: Zhonghua Shuju中華書局.Google Scholar
ZZX: Zhi, Wang 王銍 (c. 1150) Za Zuan Xu 雜纂續, in Shuo Fu 説郛, 卷 76, in SKQS, CD 319, book no. 3637.Google Scholar
Zixi, Cao 曹子西 (ed.) (1990) Beijing Lishi Gangyao 北京歷史史綱要, Beijing 北京: Yanshan Chubanshe 燕山出版社.Google Scholar
Bingying, Chen 陳炳應 (2001) ‘Shiyi Shiji Cunzaiguo Tongzhi Gua Sha Er Zhoude Huihu Hanguo ma? 11 世紀存在過統治瓜沙二州的回鶻汗國麻?’, Dunhuang Yanjiu 敦煌研究, 68 (2): 68–72.Google Scholar
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Nanjing University, History Department 南京大學歷史系 (ed.) (1982) Zhongguo Lidai Mingren Cidian 中國歷代名人辭典, Nanchang 南昌: Jiangxi Renmin Chunbanshe 江西人民出版社.Google Scholar
Lihua, Su 蘇麗華 (2007) Wuwei Pao – Shijieshang zuizaode tonghuopao 武威砲 – 世界上最早的銅火砲. Online. Available HTTP: http://www.silkroaddunhuang.com/ShowF/875.htm (accessed 18 August 2008).Google Scholar
Guangshen, Wu 呉廣生 (2004) ‘ Tianxia Diyi Huopao’ Zai Beida Wenbo Xueyuan Bowuguan Shouci Liangxiang ‘天下第一火炮’在北大文博學院博物館首次亮相. Online. Available HTTP: http://news.sohu.com/20040827/n221765189.shtml (accessed 11 June 2006).Google Scholar
Zhongguo Yixue Kexueyuan Yaowu Yanjiusuo 中國醫學科學院薬物研究所 et al. (eds) (1959) Zhong Yao Zhi 中薬志, vol. 1, Beijing: Renmin Weisheng Chubanshe 人民衞生出版社.Google Scholar
Zhongguo Yixue Kexueyuan Yaowu Yanjiusuo 中國醫學科學院薬物研究所 et al. (eds) (1960) Zhong Yao Zhi 中薬志, vol. 3, Beijing: Renmin Weisheng Chubanshe 人民衞生出版社.Google Scholar
Zhongguo Yixue Kexueyuan Yaowu Yanjiusuo 中國醫學科學院薬物研究所 et al. (eds) (1981) Zhong Yao Zhi 中薬志, vol. 2, Beijing: Renmin Weisheng Chubanshe 人民衞生出版社.Google Scholar
BZJ: Rong, Yang 楊榮 (1424) Bei Zheng Ji 北征記, in Xu Xiu Si Ku Quan Shu 續修四庫全書, vol. 433, Shanghai 上海: Guji Chubanshe 古籍出版社, n.d.Google Scholar
BZL: Youzi, Jin 金幼孜 (1410–14) Jin Wenjing Gong Bei Zheng Lu 金文靖公北征録, in Xu Xiu Si Ku Quan Shu 續修四庫全書, vol. 433, Shanghai 上海: Guji Chubanshe 古籍出版社, n.d.Google Scholar
CHTB: Ruozeng, Zheng 鄭若曾 (1562) Chou Hai Tu Bian 籌海圖编, Beijing 北京: Zhonghua Shuju 中華書局, 2007.Google Scholar
CZJ: Wanli, Yang 楊萬里 (c. 1200) Cheng Zhai Ji 誠齋記, in SKQS, CD 411, book no. 4369.Google Scholar
DSL: Shu, Tang 湯璹 (c. 1187) De'an shou yu lu德安守禦録, appended to Chen Gui 陳規, Shou Cheng Lu 守城録, in SKQS, CD 304, book no. 3125.Google Scholar
JJZ: Yinghe, Zhou周應合 (c. 1264) Jingding Jiankang Zhi 景定建康志, in Song Yuan Fangzhi Congkan 宋元方志叢刊, vol. 2, Beijing 北京: Zhonghua Shuju 中華書局, 1990; also in SKQS, CD 226, book no. 2287.Google Scholar
JS: tuo, Tuo 脱脱 & Xuan, Ouyang 歐陽玄 (c. 1345) Jin Shi 金史, 8 vols, Beijing 北京: Zhonghua Shuju 中華書局, 1975; and Zhonghua Lishi Wenku 中華歷史文庫 electronic edition on CD-Rom (based on the Bai Na Ben 百納本edition), Beijing: Yinguan Dianzi Chuban Youxian Gongsi 銀冠電子出版有限公司, n.d.Google Scholar
JZL: Gang, Li 李網 (c. 1130) Jingkang Zhuan Xin Lu 靖康傳信録, in Liangxi Ji 梁溪集, 卷 172, in SKQS, CD 407, book no. 4243.Google Scholar
LXABJ: You, Lu 陸游 (c. 1200) Lao Xue An Biji 老學庵筆記, Beijing 北京: Zhonghua Shuju中華書局, 1979.Google Scholar
MHL: Yuanlao, Meng 孟元老 (c. 1147) Dongjing Meng Hua Lu Zhu 東京夢華錄注, annotated by Deng Zhicheng 鄧之誠, Hong Kong 香港: Shangwu Yinshuguan 商務印書館, 1961.Google Scholar
MSL: Ming Shi Lu 明實錄, 183 vols., Taibei 臺北: Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Lishi Yuyan Yanjiusuo 中央研究院歷史語言研究所, 1961.Google Scholar
QDYY: Mi, Zhou 周密 (c. 1290) Qi Dong Ye Yu 齊東野語, in SKQS, CD 317, book no. 3587; also in Shuo Fu 説郛, in SKQS, CD 318, book no. 3637 [juan 卷 20 xia 下]; also Ji'nan 濟南: Qi Lu Shu She 齊鲁書社, 2007.Google Scholar
QJJ: Yun, Wang 王惲 (c. 1300) Qiu Jian Ji 秋澗集, in SKQS, CD 415, book no. 4561.Google Scholar
QSKS: Ruyu, Zhang 章如愚 (c. 1200) Qun Shu Kao Suo 群書考索, 2 vols, Yangzhou 揚州: Guangling Shushe 廣陵書社, 2008; also in SKQS, CD 325, book no. 3672.Google Scholar
QTYS: Yiqing, Liu 劉一清 (c. 1300?) Qiantang Yi Shi 錢塘遗事, in SKQS, CD 218, book no. 2135; also in Zhongguo Ye Shi Jicheng 中國野史集成, vol. 10, facsimile of 1887 edition, Chengdu 成都: Ba Shu Shu She 巴蜀書社, 1993.Google Scholar
SKQS: Yun, Ji 紀昀 & Xixiong, Lu 陸錫熊 (eds) (n.d., originally completed in manuscript in 1782) Wen Yuan Ge Si Ku Quan Shu 文渊閣四庫全書, facsimile electronic edition on CD-ROM, Wuhan: Wuhan Daxue Chubanshe 武漢大學出版社, n.d.Google Scholar
SS: tuo, Tuo 脱脱 & Xuan, Ouyang 歐陽玄 (c. 1345) Song Shi 宋史, 40 vols, Beijiing 北京: Zhonghua Shuju 中華書局, 1977; and Zhonghua Lishi Wenku 中華歷史文庫 electronic edition on CD-Rom (based on the Bai Na Ben 百納本edition), Beijing: Yinguan Dianzi Chuban Youxian Gongsi 銀冠電子出版有限公司, n.d.Google Scholar
WJZY: Gongliang, Zeng 曾公亮, Du, Ding 丁度 et al. (eds) (c. 1044) Wu Jing Zong Yao 武經縂要, in SKQS, CD 304, book no. 3122; also in Zhongguo Bingshu Jicheng 中國兵書集成, vols 3–5, Beijing: Jiefangjun Chubanshe 解放軍出版社, 1988.Google Scholar
XJXZ: [Author unknown] (c. 1230) Xing Jun Xu Zhi 行軍须知, in Zhongguo Bingshu Jicheng 中國兵書集成, vol. 5, Beijing: Jiefangjun Chubanshe 解放軍出版社, 1988.Google Scholar
XQL: Yuyu, Zhao 趙與裕 (c. 1225) Xinsi Qi Qi Lu 辛巳泣蘄録, in Xu Xiu Si Ku Quan Shu 續修四庫全書, vol. 423, Shanghai 上海: Guji Chubanshe 古籍出版社, n.d.Google Scholar
YS: Lian, Song 宋濂 et al. (c. 1370) Yuan Shi 元史, 15 vols, Beijing 北京: Zhonghua Shuju 中華書局, 1976; and Zhonghua Lishi Wenku 中華歷史文庫 electronic edition on CD-Rom (based on the Bai Na Ben 百納本 edition), Beijing: Yinguan Dianzi Chuban Youxian Gongsi 銀冠電子出版有限公司, n.d.Google Scholar
YWLJ: Wanli, Yang 楊萬里, (2007) Yang Wanli Ji Jianjiao 楊萬里集箋校, ed. Xin Gengru 辛更儒, 10 vols, Beijing 北京: Zhonghua Shuju中華書局.Google Scholar
ZZX: Zhi, Wang 王銍 (c. 1150) Za Zuan Xu 雜纂續, in Shuo Fu 説郛, 卷 76, in SKQS, CD 319, book no. 3637.Google Scholar
Zixi, Cao 曹子西 (ed.) (1990) Beijing Lishi Gangyao 北京歷史史綱要, Beijing 北京: Yanshan Chubanshe 燕山出版社.Google Scholar
Bingying, Chen 陳炳應 (2001) ‘Shiyi Shiji Cunzaiguo Tongzhi Gua Sha Er Zhoude Huihu Hanguo ma? 11 世紀存在過統治瓜沙二州的回鶻汗國麻?’, Dunhuang Yanjiu 敦煌研究, 68 (2): 68–72.Google Scholar
Weiguang, Cheng 程偉光 (2004) Shijieshang Zuizaode Huopao 世界上最早的火炮. Online. Available HTTP: http://www.erdsi.net/sjszzdhp.html (accessed 20 August 2005).Google Scholar
Liangzhouqu Renmin Zhengfu Bangongshi 凉州區人民政府辦公室 (n.d.) Xi Xia Wenhua 西夏文化. Online. Available HTTP: http://www.gsliangzhou.gov.cn/lzwh/xx.htm (accessed 11 June 2006).Google Scholar
Xu, Liu 劉旭 (2004) Zhongguo gudai huoyao huoqi shi 中國古代火薬火器史, Zhengzhou 鄭州: Daxiang Chubanshe 大象出版社.Google Scholar
Nanjing University, History Department 南京大學歷史系 (ed.) (1982) Zhongguo Lidai Mingren Cidian 中國歷代名人辭典, Nanchang 南昌: Jiangxi Renmin Chunbanshe 江西人民出版社.Google Scholar
Lihua, Su 蘇麗華 (2007) Wuwei Pao – Shijieshang zuizaode tonghuopao 武威砲 – 世界上最早的銅火砲. Online. Available HTTP: http://www.silkroaddunhuang.com/ShowF/875.htm (accessed 18 August 2008).Google Scholar
Guangshen, Wu 呉廣生 (2004) ‘ Tianxia Diyi Huopao’ Zai Beida Wenbo Xueyuan Bowuguan Shouci Liangxiang ‘天下第一火炮’在北大文博學院博物館首次亮相. Online. Available HTTP: http://news.sohu.com/20040827/n221765189.shtml (accessed 11 June 2006).Google Scholar
Zhongguo Yixue Kexueyuan Yaowu Yanjiusuo 中國醫學科學院薬物研究所 et al. (eds) (1959) Zhong Yao Zhi 中薬志, vol. 1, Beijing: Renmin Weisheng Chubanshe 人民衞生出版社.Google Scholar
Zhongguo Yixue Kexueyuan Yaowu Yanjiusuo 中國醫學科學院薬物研究所 et al. (eds) (1960) Zhong Yao Zhi 中薬志, vol. 3, Beijing: Renmin Weisheng Chubanshe 人民衞生出版社.Google Scholar
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2: Works in European and other languages (European authors writing before 1500 are listed by personal name - e.g. Matthew Paris, not Paris, Matthew)

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