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‘Indian Money’, Intra-Shīʿī Polemics, and the Bohra and Khoja Pilgrimage Infrastructure in Iraq's Shrine Cities, 1897–1932
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 10 May 2021
Abstract
Using sources in Arabic, Gujarati, Ottoman, Persian and Urdu, this article examines the foundation of Bohra and Khoja pilgrimage institutions straddling western India and Iraq's Shīʿī shrine cities between 1897 and 1932. As manifestations of ‘locative piety’, these institutions were an outgrowth of the commercial capital Bohra and Khoja merchants had acquired in Indian Ocean trade over the previous half century, and the distinct caste and sectarian identities this wealth augmented. The Bohra and Khoja (both Twelver and Ismāʿīlī) mercantile and religious elites supplied their constituents with a well-ordered pilgrimage to Iraq, certainly by the standards of contemporary Hajj. To achieve this, community-run institutional nodes in Karachi, Bombay and the Shīʿī shrine cities were integrated into wider transport, administrative, and financial infrastructures connecting India and Iraq. Yet at a time when Najaf and Karbala's economic and religious fortunes were plagued by sectarianism, political upheavals and divisions among the mujtahids, the growing presence of western Indian Shīʿīs in the shrine cities was fiercely condemned by some Twelver Shīʿī clerics. One of their number, Muḥammad Karīm Khurāsānī, published a substantial polemic against the Bohras and Khojas in 1932, signalling how these pilgrimage infrastructures worked to exacerbate intra-Shīʿī disputes.
- Type
- Research Article
- Information
- Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society , Volume 32 , Special Issue 1: Situating Sanskrit after the Sultanates , January 2022 , pp. 213 - 250
- Copyright
- Copyright © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Royal Asiatic Society
Footnotes
Many people provided comments on this article at various stages in the production line. I am especially grateful to my three anonymous reviewers for their incisive comments on the first draft, which prompted me to substantially rethink the piece and add a variety of new material. My gratitude also extends to Frederick Walter Lorenz, Pauline Lewis, Kaleb Herman Adney, Roy Bar Sadeh and Sohaib Baig. Yusuf Mallu deserves special thanks for help in reading some of the material studied here. I am also grateful to Sarah Ansari for providing exceptional editorial assistance.
References
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30 This is not to deny that such polemics exist, only that the preponderance of Bohra and Khoja works concern the policing the boundaries of the jamāʿat.
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48 Bağdād Vilāyet Sālnāmesi (Baghdad, 1907), p. 234; pp. 279-280; 289-290. An ice factory - presumably that operated by the Bohra firm, Abdul Ali & Co., (discussed below) - is mentioned on p. 208.
49 Selim Deringil, ‘The Struggle Against Shi'ism in Hamidian Iraq, A Study in Ottoman Counter-Propaganda’, Die Welt des Islams XXX (1990), pp. 45–62.
50 Jaʿfar Bāqir Āl Maḥbubah Al-Najafī, Māḍī al-Najaf wa-ḥāḍiruhā (Najaf, 1955).
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52 See the numerous references to the firm in the pages of The Levant Trade Review from 1911.
53 IOR/L/MIL/17/15/41/3, ‘Handbook of Mesopotamia. Vol. II. 1917’, p. 379.
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55 IOR/L/PS/10/188, ‘Enclosure 20 in No. 1: Statement of Faiz Muhammad-ibn-Noor Muhammad, British Subject, in the Service of Messrs. Abdul Ali Brothers, Bagdad’, Mesopotamia: Baghdad affairs. Miscellaneous, pp. 155–156.
56 IOR/L/PS/10/188, ‘No. 1 Sir G. Lowther to Sir Edward Grey’, in Mesopotamia: Baghdad affairs. Miscellaneous, p. 142.
57 IOR/L/PS/10/188, ‘Enclosure 4 in No. 1 - Messrs. Abdul Ali Brothers to Consul-General Lorimer’, Mesopotamia: Baghdad affairs. Miscellaneous, p. 151.
58 IOR/L/PS/10/570, No. S-148 of 17, p. 115.
59 NAI (National Archives of India), Progs., Nos, 820-X, 1923, ‘Saiyid Saifuddin Mulla of Dawoodi Bohra respecting the ill-treatment of certain Bohra pilgrims at the shrines in Kerbala’.
60 Māṇekjī, Irān ane Irāk-mã Musāpharī (Karachi, 1922), pp. 141–142.
61 Kaykhusro Ardaśīr Phīṭr, Irān-Irāk Musāpharīnī Ghāīḍ (Printer Unknown, 1931), p. 195.
62 IOR/L/PS/10/531/2, ‘Telegram from Viceroy - 2 November 1918’, in ‘Mesopotamia: Banking Facilities’, p. 136.
63 ‘Introduction’, in A Modern History of the Ismāʿīlīs: Continuity and Change in a Muslim Community, (ed.,) Farhad Daftary (London, 2011), p. 8.
64 ‘Khak-i Shafa’, in Encyclopaedia of Ismāʿīlīsm, (ed.) Mumtaz Ali Tajddin Sadik (Karachi, 2006).
65 H.H. The Agha Khan, G.C.S.I., ‘The Turkish Treasury Bonds’, The Comrade (1 March 1913), pp. 182–3.
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70 Mumtaz Ali Tajddin Sadik, 101 Ismaili Heroes: Late 19th Century to Present Age, Vol. 1 (Karachi, 2003), p. 16.
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72 I base this on my knowledge of several Twelver Khoja firms from Zanzibar to Madagascar.
73 IOR/R/15/2/349 ‘File 9/8 Japanese trade activities in the Persian Gulf’ [26r] (51/70); IOR/L/PS/12/3400 Coll 28/6 ‘Persia; Diaries: Khuzistan (Ahwaz) Diaries Jany 1931 – 1937.’ [564r] (1138/1548)
74 Philip Shenon, ‘B.C.C.I.'s Best Customer Is Also Its Worst Customer’, The New York Times, 6 August 1991, Section D., p. 1.
75 The history is briefly chronicled at https://www.faizepanjetani.com/ (accessed 1 June 1 2020).
76 In 1984 the Indian police raided the offices of the trust on the pretext that it was a “havala den, a racket by which delivery of foreign currency is made abroad in return for the payment of a high exchange price in Indian rupees.” This was done in return for Saudi Arabian Hajj visas. Coomi Kapoor, ‘Foreign exchange scandal involving Dawoodi Bohra Haj pilgrims breaks out’, India Today (30 September 1984).
77 ‘Phayje Husenī ṭrasṭ’, Pākistānī Dāudī Vohrā Vastī Patrak (Karachi, 1966), pp. 118–119.
78 Ibid.
79 ‘Fazalhussain Mulla Haiderbhoy and another—Plaintiffs. vs. Abdullabhoy Shaikh Ismailji and another—Defendants. Suit No. 1227 of 1946, decided on 2nd August 1950’, The Dominion Law Reporter, Nagpur, Vol. VI, Bombay High Court (Nagpur, 1951), pp. 39–47.
80 Bohras & the Waqf Act: being a plea for the application of The Mussalman Waqf Act of 1923 to the Dawoodi Bohra Community in the Bombay Presidency and elsewhere (Burhanpur, 1929), p. 13.
81 ‘New Borah High Priest: A Personal Sketch’, Times of India (7 April 1906), p. 7.
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83 Mīr Asad ʿAlī Khān, Irāq wa Īrān: yaʻnī, safarnāma-i maqāmāt-i muqaddasa (Ḥaidarābād, 1931), p. 60.
84 Ibid., p. 79.
85 Ibid., p. 72.
86 I purchased this item on consignment from a bookseller in India, but unfortunately the book was misplaced by the seller in the process of shipment. I am therefore unable to provide full bibliographic information about it, but I can verify its authenticity.
87 ʿAbd Allāh Ḥussain Hākīmjī Buṭwāla, Dalīlul Hujjāj (Mumbai, 1328 [1908]).
88 Ibid., p. 3.
89 Ibid., pp. 4–5. A key part of the Bohra itinerary in Mecca was Jannat al-Muʿallā, the cemetery destroyed by the Saudis in the 1920s, see pp. 6–7.
90 Ibid., p. 39.
91 Musajī, Rāhe Karbalā, p. 8.
92 Ibid. See advertisements in first unnumbered pages.
93 Ibid., p. 6.
94 Ibid., p. 12
95 Ibid., p. 20.
96 Ibid.
97 Ibid., pp. 20–21.
98 Ibid., p. 20.
99 Ibid.
100 Ibid., p. 24.
101 Ibid.
102 Ibid., p. 64–65.
103 ʿAbd al-Majīd Daryābādī, Safar-i Ḥijāz: Ḥajj va ziyārat kā mufaṣṣal va mukammal hidāyat nāma (Aʿẓamgaṛh, 1931), pp. 40–41.
104 Musajī, Rāhe Karbalā, pp. 36, 72.
105 ʿAbd al-Razzāq Ḥasanī, Tārīkh al-wizārāt al-ʿIrāqīyyah, Vol. 4 (Ṣaida, 1953), p. 17.
106 Habibullah, His Holiness Doctor Syedna, p. 12.
107 Several Palestinian newspapers in the late 1930s published articles on the dāʿī al-muṭlaq's visit to Palestine, Damascus and Cairo and the donations he made. Some even featured a front-page article with photos. See ‘ʿAẓima Sulṭān al-Bohra fī Filasṭīn’ and subsidiary articles in Filasṭīn (6 May 1937).
108 Diqin, Muḥammad, Kiswat al-Kaʿbah al-muʿaẓẓamah ʿabr al-tārīkh (Cairo, 1986), p. 57Google Scholar.
109 Zakī Mubārak, Al-Taṣawwuf al-Islāmī fī al-ʿAdab wa al-ʿAkhlāq (Beirut, 2020), p. 370.
110 Samīr ʿAbd al-Ḥamīd Ibrāhīm (ed.), Yawmīyāt riḥlah fī al-Ḥijāz, 1348 H / 1930 M, Ghulam Rasul Mehr (Riyadh, 1417 [1996 or 7]), p. 69.
111 ‘Anjuman-i-Faize-Panjetani (Pilgrim Institution)’, The Times of India Directory of Bombay (City & Province), including Karachi and Hyderabad State (1940), p. 210.
112 ‘Esmail Abdulkarim Panju’, in The Indian Year Book, Vol. XXXIII, (ed.) Sir Stanley Reed (Bombay & Calcutta, 1947), p. 1087.
113 Khojā Lavjī Jhīṇā Māstar Banāras, Kāshīthī Karbalā (Ahmedabad: Amarsinhji Press, 1922 (?)).
114 Unfortunately, I have not been able to track down this volume.
115 Jhīṇā Māstar, Kāshīthī Karbalā, p. 31.
116 Ibid., p. 34.
117 Ibid., p. 5.
118 Ibid., p. 7.
119 Worth noting is that in some Gujarati texts from this period Imām Ḥussain was described as a “Muharram Mahatma” and his final days a “satyagraha”.
120 Jhīṇā Māstar, Kāshīthī Karbalā, p. 8.
121 Ibid., p. 14.
122 Ibid., pp. 15–16.
123 Ibid., p. 19.
124 The quote is produced in English in the account.
125 Jhīṇā Māstar notifies the reader that he has put the Bohra's remarks in quotes because his Gujarati accent was quite irregular, saying “faij” instead of “faiz” when referring to the Faiż-i Ḥussainī. For the duration of his conversation with the Bohra, Jhīṇā Māstar attempted to replicate his accent, to humorous narrative effect in the text.
126 Ibid., p. 20.
127 Ibid., pp. 34–35.
128 Ibid., p. 24.
129 Ibid., p. 25.
130 Ibid., p. 26.
131 Ibid.
132 Ibid., pp. 26–27.
133 Ibid., p. 29.
134 Ibid.
135 Ibid.
136 Ibid. p. 30.
137 Ibid., p. 26.
138 Ibid.
139 Tajddin, 101 Ismaili Heroes, Vol.1, p. 194.
140 Mīr Asad ʿAli Khān, Irāq wa Īrān, p. 67.
141 Nakash, Yitzhak, The Shīʿīs of Iraq (Princeton, New Jersey, 1995), p. 76Google Scholar.
142 Ibid., pp. 85–90, 247–253.
143 Muḥsin Amīn, “Al-Maulvī Muḥammad Karı̄m bin Muhammad ʿAlī al-Khurāsānı̄,” Aʿyān al-Shīʿa, Vol. 14 (Beirut, 1998), p. 349.
144 Khurāsānī, Kitāb tanbīhāt, p. 3.
145 Ibid., p. 18.
146 Ibid., p. 11. These ‘sources’ appear to have been entirely Nizārī Ismāʿīlīs.
147 For a brief discussion of the press see al-Najafī, Madī al-Najaf, p. 119.
148 Nakash, The Shīʿīs of Iraq, pp. 256–257.
149 Ḥusayn Qulı̄ Jadı̄d al-Islām, Minhāj al-ṭālibı̄n kih radd bar firqah-i hālikah-i Bābı̄yah (Bombay, 1320 [1902]); Muḥammad Mahdı̄ Khān Tibrı̄zı̄, Miftāḥ Bāb al-abwāb (Cairo, 1321/1903-4).
150 Berkes, Niyazi, The Development of Secularism in Turkey (London, 1999), p. 9Google Scholar.
151 Khurāsānī, Kitāb tanbīhāt, p. 11
152 Ibid., see unnumbered first folio.
153 Ibid, p. 3.
154 Ibid., pp. 11, 17.
155 Ibid. pp. 58, 237.
156 Ibid., p. 271.
157 Ibid., p. 315.
158 Ibid., p. 315.
159 Ibid., pp. 238–239.
160 Ibid., p. 315.
161 Ibid., p. 321.
162 Ibid., pp. 321–322.
163 Ibid., p. 322.
164 Ibid., p. 322.
165 Ibid., p. 322.
166 The one-time house of Bahāʾ Allāh near Baghdad, formerly an important Bahāʾī pilgrimage site, was seized by Iraqi authorities in 1925. Walbridge, John, ‘Bahá'í Shrines’, Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. 3, (New York, 1989)Google Scholar.