¹ al-Ghazālī, Abū Ḥāmid, Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm al-dīn (Beirut, 2005), p. 955Google Scholar. This saying of al-Ghazālī, and his chapter on elementary education, in general (Iḥyāʾ, pp. 955–958), is clearly informed by Ibn Miskawayh's Tahdhīb al-akhlāq [wa-taṭhīr al-aʿrāq], (ed.) ʿImād al-Hilālī (Beirut, 2011), pp. 288–295 (p. 289).

² This is not to say, however, that there were no katātīb for girls.

³ See Manẓūr, Ibn, Lisān al-ʿArab, (eds.) ʿA. al-Kabīr, M. A. Ḥasab Allāh and H. M. al-Shādhilī, revised edition, 6 vols (Cairo, 1981), v, 3817Google Scholar; al-Zamakhsharī, Asās al-balāgha, (ed.) Muḥammad B. ʿUyūn al-Sūd, 2 vols (Beirut, 1998), pp. ii, 121; al-Khalīl b. Aḥmad al-Farāhīdī, K. al-Ayn, (eds.) Mahdī al-Makhẓūmī and Ibrāhīm al-Sāmarrāʾī, 8 vols (Beirut, n.d.), pp. vi, 341; Ahmad b. Muḥammad al-Fayyūmī, al-Miṣbāḥ al-munīr (Beirut, 1987), p. 200; Ibn Abī Bakr al-Rāzī, Mukhtār al-ṣiḥāḥ, (ed.) Dāʾirat al-Maʿājim fī Maktabat Lubnān, rev. edn (Beirut, 1989), p. 495; J. M. Landau, “Kuttāb”, in EI², v (1986), pp. 567–570 (p. 568); Günther, Sebastian, “Islamic Education”, in New Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Volume 2―Communication of Ideas to Futurology, (ed.) Horowitz, M. Cline (Farmington Hills, MI, 2005), pp. 640–645 (p. 642)Google Scholar; Kadi, Wadad, “Education in Islam—Myths and Truths”, Comparative Education Review 50 (2006), pp. 311–324 (p. 313)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Also in the same journal and volume, see Helen N. Boyle, “Memorization and Learning in Islamic Schools”, pp. 478–495; Baiza, Yahia, “Islamic Education and Development of Educational Traditions and Institutions”, in Handbook of Islamic Education, (eds.) Daun, Holger and Arjmand, Reza (Cham, 2018), pp. 1–21 (p. 5)Google Scholar.

⁴ On that type of private education, see for example: Ṣāliḥiyya, M. ʿĪsā, “Muʾaddibū al-khulafāʾ fī al-ʿaṣr al-ʿabbāsī al-awwal”, al-Majalla al-ʿArabiyya li-l ʿUlūm al-Insāniyya 5 (1982), pp. 43–96Google Scholar; Maḥmūd Qumbur, “al-Muʾaddibūn wa-ṣanʿat al-taʾdīb: dirāsa fī al-turāth al-tarbawī al-islāmī”, in Dirāsāt turāthiyya fī al-tarbiya al-islāmiyya, (ed.) M. Qumbur (Doha, 1985), pp. 155–189.

⁵ Tentatively entitled Into the Mind of a Medieval Muslim Child, to be published by Springer in 2022.

⁶ See G. Lecomte, “Sur la vie scolaire à Byzance et dans l'Islam”, I, “L'enseignement primaire à Byzance el le kuttāb”, II (by M. Canard) Falaqa = ΦAΛAΓΓAΣ, Arabica 1 (1954), pp. 324–331, 331–336; Tritton, Arthur. S., Material on Muslim Education in the Middle Ages (London, 1957)Google Scholar; id, “Muslim Education in the Middle Ages”, The Muslim World 43 (1953), pp. 82–94; Gilʿadi, Avner, Children of Islam: Concepts of Childhood in Medieval Islamic Society (Oxford, 1992)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷ Ignaz Goldziher, “Education (Muslim)”, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics: Volume V, (eds.) James Hastings et al. (Edinburgh, 1912), pp. 198–207.

⁸ See Günther, Sebastian, “Be Masters in That You Teach and Continue to Learn: Medieval Muslim Thinkers on Educational Theory”, Comparative Education Review 50 (2006), pp. 367–388CrossRefGoogle Scholar; id., “Advice for Teachers: The 9th Century Muslim Scholars Ibn Saḥnūn and al-Jāḥiẓ on Pedagogy and Didactics”, in Ideas, Images and Methods of Portrayal. Insights into Classical Arabic Literature and Islam, (ed.) S. Günther (Leiden, 2005), pp. 89–128; id., “Your Educational Achievements Shall Not Stop Your Efforts to Seek Beyond: Principles of Teaching and Learning in Classical Arabic Writings”, in Philosophies of Islamic Education: Historical Perspectives and Emerging Discourses, (eds.) Nadeem A. Memon and Mujadad Zaman (New York and London, 2016), pp. 72–93.

⁹ Gilliot, Claude, “Introduction”, in Education and Learning in the Early Islamic World, (ed.) Gilliot, Claude (Farnham and Burlington, VT, 2012), pp. xiii-lixGoogle Scholar (for bibliography, see pp. lxi-xc). See also Stewart's, Devin J. review of this edited volume in Journal of Islamic Studies 25 (2014), pp. 239–241CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁰ Baer, Eva, “Muslim Teaching Institutions and their Visual Reflections: The Kuttāb”, Der Islam 78 (2001), pp. 73–102CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹¹ See Landau, “Kuttāb”, pp. 567–570; id., “Maktab”, in EI², vi (1991), pp. 196–197. See also A. Gilʿadi, “Ṣaghīr”, EI², viii (1995), pp. 821–827.

¹² A. Shalaby, History of Muslim Education (Beirut, 1954); translated by Aḥmad. Shalabī as al-Tarbiya al-islāmiyya: nuẓumuhā, falsafatuhā, tārīkhuhā, 6th edition (title of previous editions: Tārīkh al-tarbiya al-uslāmiyya) (Cairo, 1978); Khalil Totah, The Contribution of the Arabs to Education (New York, 1926; reprint, Piscataway, NJ, 2002); translated by Khalīl Ṭawṭaḥ as al-Tarbiya ʿind al-ʿarab (Giza, 2019).

¹³ A. Fuʾād Ahwānī, al-Tarbiya fī al-islām (Cairo, 1968); id., al-Taʿlīm fī raʾy al-Qābisī, min ʿulamāʾ al-qarn al-rābiʿ (Cairo, 1945); ʿAbd al-Raḥmān Ḥijāzī, al-Madhhab al-tarbawī ʿind Ibn Saḥnūn, rāʾid al-taʾlīf al-tarbawī al-islāmī (Beirut, 1986); ʿAbd al-Amīr Shams al-Dīn, al-Fikr al-tarbawī ʿind Ibn Saḥnūn wa al-Qābisī (Beirut, 1985; reprint, Beirut, 1990); id., al-Madhhab al-tarbawī ʿind Ibn Sīnā min khilāl falsafatihi al-ʿamaliyya (Beirut, 1988).

¹⁴ See Gunther, “Be Masters”, p. 367.

¹⁵ Lecomte, “Sur la vie scolaire”, pp. 324–331; Landau, “Kuttāb”, p. 567; Gilliot, “Introduction”, p. xxix; Baer, “Muslim Teaching Institutions”, p. 73; Günther, “Advice for Teachers”, p. 93, n. 10.

¹⁶ Goldziher, “Muslim Education”, p. 198.

¹⁷ Cf. Hamidullah, M., “Educational System in the Time of the Prophet”, Islamic Culture 13 (1939), pp. 48–59Google Scholar.

¹⁸ Ibn Ḥazm al-Ẓāhirī, al-Fiṣal fī al-milal wa-l-ahwāʾ wa-l-niḥal, (ed.) Aḥmad Shams al-Dīn, 3 vols (Beirut, 2014), i, p. 333; Shihāb al-Dīn al-Nafarāwī, al-Fawākih al-dawānī ʿalā Risālat Ibn Abī Zayd al-Qayrawānī, (ed.) ʿAbd al-Wārith M. ʿAlī, 2 vols (Beirut, 1997), i, pp. 50–51; M. ʿAbd al-Ḥayy al-Kattānī, Niẓām al-ḥukūma al-nabawiyya al-musammā ‘al-tarātīb al-idāriyya’, (ed.) ʿAbd Allāh al-Khālidī, 2nd edition (Beirut, 2016), ii, p. 200.

¹⁹ Gibb, H. and Kramers, J., A Shorter Encyclopaedia of Islam (Leiden, 1974), p. 300Google Scholar.

²⁰ Ibn Ḥawqal, al-Masālik wa al-Mamālik, p. 78. See also W. Granara, “Islamic Education and the Transmission of Knowledge in Muslim Sicily”, in Law and Education in Medieval Islam: Studies in Honor of Professor George Makdisi, (eds.) J. E. Lowry et al. (Cambridge, 2004), pp. 150–173; ʿAlī al-Zahrānī, al-Ḥayā al-ʿilmiyya fī Siqilliya al-islāmiyya (Makka, 1996), p. 225 ff.

²¹ See Landau, “Kuttāb”, pp. 568–569; Sahin, Abdullah, “Critical Issues in Islamic Education Studies: Rethinking Islamic and Western Liberal Secular Values of Education”, Religions 9 (2018), pp. 1–29 (p. 3)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Tan, Charlene, “Colonialism, Postcolonialism, Islam, and Education”, in Handbook of Islamic Education, (eds.) Daun, Holger and Arjmand, Reza (Cham, 2018), pp. 1–12Google Scholar; Baiza, “Islamic Education”, p. 18. See also Kadi, Wadad, “Education in Islam—Myths and Truths”, Comparative Education Review 50 (2006), pp. 311–324 (p. 313)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. On how the Muslims in his time responded to calls for modernisation of traditional Islamic education, and Islam in general, see Marmaduke Pickthall, “Muslim Education”, Islamic Culture 1 (1927), pp. 100–108. On the cultural repercussions of “the juxtaposition of inherited Islamic and borrowed or enforced Western secular educational cultures”, see Sahin, “Critical Issues”, pp. 1–29.

²² Landau, “Kuttāb”, p. 568.

²³ See Abū ʿAlī b. Sīna, K. al-Siyāsa, (ed.) ʿAlī M. Isbir (Jableh, 2007), p. 88; Ibn Khaldūn, Muqaddima, (ed.) ʿAbd Allāh M. al-Darwīsh, 2 vols (Damascus, 2004), ii, pp. 354–355; Abū Bakr b. al-ʿArabī, Aḥkām al-Qurʾān, (ed.) Muḥammad ʿA. ʿAṭā, 2nd revised edition, 4 vols (Beirut, 2003), iv, p. 349.

²⁴ See Khalīfa Hājjī, Kashf al-ẓunūn ʿan asāmī al-kutub wa-l-funūn, (ed. and translated) Gustavus Flügel, 7 vols (Leipzig and London, 1835–1858), i, p. 29; Zakariyyā al-Anṣārī al-Luʾluʾ al-naẓīm fī rawm al-taʿallum wa-l-taʿlīm (Cairo, 1901), p. 5.

²⁵ This opinion is held by Ibn Sīnā (Siyāsa, pp. 83–84); Ibn Khaldūn (Muqaddima, ii, p. 353); al-Ghazālī (Iḥyāʾ, p. 955); and Ibn al-Ḥājj al-ʿAbdarī, al-Madkhal, 4 vols (Cairo, n.d.), iv, pp. 295, 299. See also Tritton, “Muslim Education in the Middle Ages”, p. 82.

²⁶ Al-Ghazālī, Mīzān al-ʿamal, (ed.) Sulaymān Dunyā (Cairo, 1964), p. 227. See also al-Ghazālī, Iḥyāʾ, p. 955; Günther, “Be Masters”, pp. 381–382; K. M. El Bagir, “Al-Ghazālī's Philosophy of Education: With Special Reference to Al-Iḥyāʾ, Book 1” (unpublished PhD thesis, University of Edinburgh, 1953), pp. 171–172.

²⁷ Al-Haythamī, Majmaʿ al-zawāʾid wa-manbaʿ al-fawāʾid, (ed.) M ʿAbd al-Qādir ʿAṭā (Beirut, 2001), ḥadīth no. 515; Abū Ṭāhir al-Jīṭālī, Qanāṭir al-khayrāt, (eds.) S. Kasrawī Ḥasan and Kh. Maḥmūd ʿAbd al-Samīʿ, 3 vols (Beirut, 2001), i, pp. 102–103. See also Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī, Minhājj al-mutaʿallim, (ed.) Aḥmad ʿInāya (Damascus, 2010), pp. 88–89; al-Nafarāwī, Fawākih, i, p. 50.

²⁸ Ibn Saḥnūn, Ādāb al-muʿallimīn, (ed.) M. al-ʿArūsī al-Maṭwī (Tunis, 1972), p. 81.

²⁹ See Kh. Semaan, “Education in Islam: From the Jāhiliyya to Ibn Khaldūn”, The Muslim World 56 (1966), pp. 188–198 (pp. 191–192).

³⁰ According to some medieval Muslim pedagogues, a genuine scholar is advised not to be engaged with such ‘distractions’ as marriage and having children.

³¹ On the proper age for a child to start attending the kuttāb, see al-Kattānī, Tarātīb, ii, pp. 201–202; M. ʿAṭiyya al-Abrāshī, al-Tarbiya al-islāmiyya wa-flāsifatuhā, 3rd edition (Cairo, 1976), pp. 187–188. Students were usually asked to leave the kuttāb at the age of puberty (around 13 or 14 years old), except for those who were outstandingly promising. See Rāshid Saʿd al-Qaḥṭānī, Awqāf al-sulṭān al-Ashraf Shaʿbān ʿalā al-ḥaramayn (Riyadh, 1994), p. 97; Hujjat Waqf al-sulṭān al-Ghūrī, as cited by Saʿīd ʿA. ʿĀshur, al-Mujtamaʿ al-miṣrī fī ʿaṣr salāṭīn al-mamālīk, 2nd revised edition (Cairo, 1992), p. 169; M. Asʿad Ṭalas, al-tarbiya wa-l-taʿlīm fi al-islam (Cairo, 2014), pp. 74–75; Shalabī, Tarbiya islāmiyya, pp. 201–203.

³² See Gilliot, “Introduction”, p. xxxiii.

³³ Richard W. Bulliet, “The Age Structure of Medieval Islamic Education”, in Education and Learning in the Early Islamic World, (ed.) Claude Gilliot (Farnham and Burlington, VT, 2012), pp. 39–51 (p. 51).

³⁴ Al-Jāḥiẓ, al-Bayān wa-l-tabyīn, (ed.) ʿAbd al-Salām M. Hārūn, 7th edition, 4 vols (Cairo, 1998) i, p. 248. See also other views of al-Jāḥiẓ on the foolishness of schoolmasters in Ibn al-Jawzī, Akhbār al-ḥamqā wa-l-mughaffalīn, (ed.) ʿAbd al-Amīr Muhannā (Beirut, 1990), pp. 149–152; Shihāb al-Dīn al-Abshīhī, al-Mustaṭraf fī kul fann mustaẓraf, (ed.) M. Khayr al-Ḥalabī, 5th edition (Beirut, 2008), pp. 691–692.

³⁵ On this book, see Gilliot, “Introduction”, p. xlv. See also Ṭawṭaḥ, Tarbiya, pp. 131–132.

³⁶ Abū Bakr al-Warrāq, K. al-ʿālim wa-l-mutaʿallim, (eds.) Rifʿat Fawzī and ʿAlī ʿA. Mazīd, 2nd edition (Cairo, 2001).

³⁷ Examples are: al-ʿĀlim wa-l-mutaʿallim by Ibn Ḥibbān al-Bustī (d. 354/965); Akhlāq al-ʿulamāʾ by Abū Bakr al-Ājurrī (d. 360/ 970); al-ʿĀlim wa-l-mutaʿallim by Aḥmad b. Abān al-Andalusī (d. 382/992); al-ʿĀlim wa-l-mutaʿallim by Ibn Sīda (Abū al-Ḥasan al-Mursī) (d. 458/1066). Apart from al-Ājurrī's, all these works are missing.

³⁸ See Günther, “Advice for Teachers”, p. 90; id., “Principles of Teaching”, pp. 72–73.

³⁹ Günther, “Advice for Teachers”, pp. 110–111; id., “Principles of Teaching”, pp. 74–75.

⁴⁰ Günther, “Advice for Teachers”, p. 111.

⁴¹ Günther, “Be Masters”, p. 371 (nt. 9).

⁴² Ch. Pellat, “Al-Djāḥiẓ”, in EI², ii (1991), pp. 385–387; Günther, “Advice for Teachers”, p. 110.

⁴³ Al-Jāḥiẓ, Rasāʾil al-Jāḥiẓ, (ed.) ʿAbd al-Salām M. Hārūn, 4 vols (Cairo, 1964–79), iii, p. 128.

⁴⁴ Pellat, “Al-Djāḥiẓ”, p. 385; Günther, “Advice for Teachers”, p. 111.

⁴⁵ Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī, Muʿjam al-udabāʾ: irshād al- arīb ilā maʿrifat al-adīb, (ed.) Iḥsān ʿAbbās, 7 vols (Beirut, 1993), v, pp. 2101–22 (especially 2103); Ibn al-Nadīm, al-Fihrist, (ed.) Riḍā Tajaddud, 10 vols (Tehran, 10 parts in 1, 197?), v, pp. 208–212; Pellat, “Al-Djāḥiẓ”, p. 385.

⁴⁶ The Barmakīds were traditionally considered to be majūsī converts, but they were likely of Buddhist origin (associated with the Greek Bactrian Buddhist culture), although their exact provenance has always been shrouded in mystery. Some prefer to refer to them as an Iranian-Assyrian family.

⁴⁷ See, for example, Ibn al-Ḥājj, Madkhal, ii, p. 122.

⁴⁸ See Ibn Khaldūn, Muqaddima, ii, p. 355.

⁴⁹ The achievement of completing the memorisation of the Qurʾān, on the other hand, was called ‘ḥidhāq’. It is derived from the root ḥadhaqa, to ‘master [something]’.

⁵⁰ On these celebrations, see Goldziher, “Muslim Education”, p. 204; Ibn al-Ḥājj, Madkhal, ii, pp. 331–334; ʿĀshur, al-Mujtamaʿ al-miṣrī, p. 168–169.

⁵¹ Goldziher, “Muslim Education”, p. 199.

⁵² Al-Jāḥiẓ, [Min] Kātib al-Muʿallimīn, in Rasāʾil al-Jāḥiẓ, iii, pp. 25–51 (pp. 32, 36, 38–39).

⁵³ For more details on these types of mathematics, see Gunther, “Advice for Teachers”, p. 123, n. 57.

⁵⁴ Al-Jāḥiẓ K. al-Muʿallimīn, p. 39. Al-Jāḥiẓ also dedicated a separate chapter to the secrets of effective writing and authorship. See al-Jāḥiẓ, K. al-Muʿallimīn, p. 39–42.

⁵⁵ Ibid., p. 45.

⁵⁶ Gunther, “Advice for Teachers”, p. 116.

⁵⁷ Al-Jāḥiẓ, K. al-Muʿallimīn, p. 45.

⁵⁸ Ibid., pp. 45–48.

⁵⁹ Some, however, date the beginning of the ʿAbbasid decline from the time of provincial autonomy in the reign of Hārūn al-Rashīd.

⁶⁰ See Rasāʾil al-Jāḥiẓ, i, pp. 1–86; iii, pp. 161–220.

⁶¹ Al-Jāḥiẓ, K. al-Muʿallimīn, p. 45.

⁶² Ibid, p. 48.

⁶³ Al-Jāḥiẓ, K. al-Muʿallimīn, p. 49.

⁶⁴ See Rasāʾil al-Jāḥiẓ, iv, pp. 253–258. See also: i, pp. 3–14.

⁶⁵ Pellat, “al-Djāḥiẓ”, p. 385.

⁶⁶ Al-Ghazālī, Iḥyāʾ, pp. 68–69; id., Minhājj, p. 92.

⁶⁷ Ibn Ḥazm, Risālat Marātib al-ʿulūm, in Rasāʾil ibn Hazm al-Andalusī, (ed.) Iḥsān ʿAbbās, 4 vols (Beirut, 1983), iv, pp. 59–90 (p. 65).

⁶⁸ Ibn Ḥazm, Fiṣal (M. Ibrāhīm Naṣr and ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ʿUmayra eds.), v, p. 39.

⁶⁹ Nonetheless, the literary oeuvre of the Ibn Ḥazm, himself a harsh critic, was bitterly criticised by Abū Bakr b. al-ʿArabī, who was not bashful to undertake this critique despite the former having once been the shaykh of his own father.

⁷⁰ See R. Arnaldez, “Ibn Ḥazm”, EI², iii (1986), pp. 790–799.

⁷¹ According to al-Ghazālī, a parent should send his son to the teacher when he is four years, four months, and four days old: Minhājj, p. 76. Later scholars commented on this; see al-Kattānī, Tarātīb, ii, p. 201.

⁷² The word ghulām or ṣabiyy (pl. ṣibyān) is commonly used in the literature to refer to kuttāb pupils.

⁷³ Ibn Ḥazm, Marātib al-ʿulūm, p. 65.

⁷⁴ Ibid., pp. 76–77.

⁷⁵ Ibn ʿArabī, Risāla fī kunh mā-lā budd li-l-murīd minh (Cairo, 1910), pp. 48–49.

⁷⁶ Burhān al-Islām al-Zarnūjī, Taʿlīm al-mutaʿallim ṭarīq al-taʿallum, (ed.) Marwān Qabbānī (Beirut, 1981), p. 110. For a more detailed warning against ingratiating oneself with the rulers, see Muḥammad b. ʿAlī al-Shawkānī, Adab al-ṭalab wa-muntahā al-arab, (ed.) ʿAbd Allāh b. Yaḥyā al-Surayḥī (Beirut, 2008), pp. 86–89.

⁷⁷ Al-Ghazālī: Minhājj, p. 92. The same ḥadīth is also mentioned by al-Zarnūjī, Ṭarīq al-taʿallum, p. 126. In his epistle, Ayyūhā al-walad, al-Ghazālī warned students against association with, accepting gifts from, or even seeing the rulers. Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī, Ayyuhā al-walad, (ed.) ʿAlī al-Qaradāghī, 4th edition (Beirut, 2010), pp. 144–145.

⁷⁸ Al-Nafarāwī, Fawākih, i, p. 43.

⁷⁹ On this particular topic see, Ibn Saḥnūn; Ādāb al-muʿallimīn, pp. 82–83; Abū al-Ḥasan al-Qābisī, al-Risāla al-mufaṣṣala li-aḥwāl al-mutaʿallimīn wa-aḥkām al-muʿallimīn wa-l-mutaʿallimīn, (ed. and trans. into French) Aḥmad Khālid (Tunis, 1986), pp. 98–125; Goldziher, “Muslim Education”, pp. 202–203; Günther, “Advice for Teachers”, pp. 108–109; Ṭalas, al-Tarbiya wa-l-taʿlīm fi al-islām, pp. 72–74.

⁸⁰ See, for example, Ibn Saḥnūn, Ādāb al-muʿallimīn, pp. 103–104; al-Qābisī, Risāla mufaṣṣila, pp. 144–145; Kadi, “Education in Islam”, p. 313.

⁸¹ Abū ʿAbd Allāh al-Jahshayārī, K. al-Wuzarāʾ wa-l-kuttāb, (eds.) M. al-Saqqā, I. al-Ibyārī and ʿA. Shalabī (Cairo, 1938), p. 212.

⁸² The oldest surviving waqf deeds go back to the third/ninth century.

⁸³ On the role of waqfs in maintaining the learning institutions in general in medieval Islam, see George Makdisi, “Muslim Institutions of Learning in Eleventh-Century Baghdad”, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 24 (1961), pp. 1–56; Talal Al-Azem, “The Transmission of Adab: Educational Ideals and their Institutional Manifestations”, in Philosophies of Islamic Education: Historical Perspectives and Emerging Discourses, (eds.) Nadeem Memon and Mujadad Zaman (New York, 2016), pp. 112–126 (p. 115).

⁸⁴ The word ‘maʿlūm’ continued to be used, alone, to mean a set (lit. agreed or named) payment, wage, or price.

⁸⁵ Ibn Jubayr, Riḥlat Ibn Jubayr (Beirut, 1964), p. 245. See also Semaan, “Education in Islam”, p. 195; Tritton, “Muslim Education”, p. 86.

⁸⁶ Ibn Jubayr, Riḥla, p. 27. See also Shalabī, Tarbiya islāmiyya, p. 298.

⁸⁷ Ibn Wāṣil, Mufarrij al-kurūb fī akhbār Banī Ayyūb, (eds.) Jamāl al-Dīn al-Shayyāl, Ḥasanayn M. Rabīʿ and Saʿīd ʿA. ʿĀshūr, 5 vols (Cairo, 1957), i, p. 284.

⁸⁸ See Ibn Baṭṭūṭa, Riḥlat Ibn Baṭṭūṭa al-musammāh ‘tuḥfat al-nuẓẓār fī gharāʾib al-amṣār wa-ʿajāʾib al-asfār’, 2 vols (Cairo, 1904), i, pp. 67, 75.

⁸⁹ See al-Qaḥṭānī, Awqāf al-Ashraf Shaʿbān, p. 97, 119–120. See also Hujjat Waqf Shāhīn al-Ḥasanī al-Ṭawāshī, as cited by Fāṭima M. al-Mubārakī, “Dawr al-muḥtasib fī al-ḥadd min ẓāhirat al-ʿunf fī al-katātib fī al-Ḥijāz fī al-ʿaṣr al-mamlūkī wa-l-dawla al-suʿūdiyya al-thālitha”, Majallat Qiṭāʿ al-Dirāsāt al-Insāniyya 21 (2018), pp. 358–92 (p. 367). On this waqf deed (ḥujja), see also al-Mubārakī, “Dawr al-muḥtasib”, pp. 384–385. On the role of waqfs in funding the educational institutions in the Mamlūk period, see Shalabī, Tarbiya, pp. 364–373. See also ʿĀshur, al-Mujtamaʿ al-miṣrī, p. 167.

⁹⁰ Abū Shāma al-Maqdisī, al-Rawḍatayn fī akhbār al-dawlatayn, 2 vols (Cairo, 1870), ii, p. 241; ʿAbd al-Qādir al-Nuʿaymī, al-Dāris fī tārīkh al-madāris, (ed.) Jaʿfar al-Ḥasanī, 2 vols (Damascus, 1948), i, p. 92.

⁹¹ Shawqī Abū Khalīl, al-Ḥaḍāra al-ʿarabiyya al-islāmiyya wa-mūjaz ʿan al-ḥaḍārāt al-sābiqa, 2nd edn (Damascus, 2002), p. 459.

⁹² Caroline Williams, Islamic Monuments in Cairo: The Practical Guide (Cairo, 2002). p. 15; Doris Behrens-Abouseif, Islamic architecture in Cairo: An introduction (Cairo, 1989), p. 16; id, “Sabīl: 2 As an Architectural Term”, in EI², viii (1995), pp. 679–83; C. E. Bosworth, “Sabīl: 1 As a Religious Concept”, viii (1995), p. 679; Jonathan P. Berkey, The Transmission of Knowledge in Medieval Cairo: A Social History of Islamic Education (Princeton, 2014), p. 47.

⁹³ A post in medieval Islam that is fairly equivalent to the agoranomos (‘market inspector’) in Greek civilisation. See Jonathan Berkey, “The Muḥtasibs of Cairo Under the Mamluks: Towards an Understanding of an Islamic Institution”, in The Mamluks in Egyptian and Syrian Politics and Society, (eds.) Michael Winter and Amalia Levanoni (Leiden, 2004), pp. 245–276; Kristen Stilt and M. Safa Saraçoǧlu, “Hisba and Muhtasib”, in The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Law, (eds) Anver M. Emon and Rumee Ahmed (Oxford, 2018), pp. 327–355.

⁹⁴ See Ṭalas, al-Tarbiya wa-l-taʿlīm fī al-islām, pp. 60, 67. Ḥisba, however, is said to have appeared as early as the time of the caliph ʿUmar b. al-Khaṭṭāb.

⁹⁵ Günther, “Advice for Teachers”, p. 89.

⁹⁶ Abū Bakr b. al-ʿArabī, al-ʿAwāṣim min al-qawāsim fī taḥqīq mawāqif al-ṣaḥāba baʿd wafāt al-nabiyy ṣallā Allāh ʿalyahi wa-sallam, (ed.) Muḥibb al-Dīn al-Khaṭīb (Beirut, 2010), p. 178.

⁹⁷ Landau, “Kuttāb”, p. 568.

⁹⁸ Al-Mubārakī, “Dawr al-Muḥtasib”, p. 372–376.

⁹⁹ ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Shayzarī, Nihāyat al-rutba fī ṭalab al-ḥisba, (ed.) al-Sayyid al-Bāzz al-ʿArīnī (Cairo, 1946), pp. 103–104; Ibn Bassām, Nihāyat al-Rutba fī Ṭalab al-Ḥisba, (ed.) Husām al-Dīn al-Samarrāʾī (Baghdad, 1968), pp. 161–162; Ibn al-Ikhwa (Muḥammad b. Aḥmad al-Qurashī), Maʿālim al-qurba fī aḥkām al-ḥisba, (eds.) Muḥammad M. Shaʿbān and Ṣiddīq A. al-Muṭayʿī (Cairo, 1976), pp. 260–262.

¹⁰⁰ The same outlook on education as a gradual process was also called for by Ibn Saḥnūn and Ibn Sīnā. See A. K. Mirbabaev, “The Development of Education: Maktab, Madrasa, Science and Pedagogy - Part One: The Islamic Lands and Their Culture”, in History of civilizations of Central Asia: Volume IV: The Age of Achievement: A.D. 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century - Part Two: The Achievements, (eds.) C. E. Bosworth and M. S. Asimov (Paris, 2000), pp. 31–43 (p. 34). On the importance of gradual advance in teaching, see Abū Bakr b. al-Sunnī, Riyāḍat al-mutaʿallimīn, (ed.) Niẓām M. Yaʿqūbī (Manama, 2015), p 126; Sālik A. Maʿlūm, al-Fikr al-tarbawī ʿind al-Khaṭīb al-Baghdādī, 2nd edition (Damanhour, 1993), p. 208.

¹⁰¹ See al-Shayzarī, Niyāyat al-rutba, pp. 103–105; Ibn Bassām, Niyāyat al-rutba, p 162; Ibn al-Ikhwa, Maʿālim al-qurba, p. 262. See also Goldziher, “Muslim Education”, p. 201; A. Gilʿadi, “Individualism and Conformity in Medieval Islamic Educational Thought: Some Notes with Special Reference to Elementary Education”, Al-Qanṭara 26 (2005), pp. 99–121 (pp. 116–117).

¹⁰² Al-Shayzarī, Niyāyat al-rutba, pp. 104–105.

¹⁰³ Ibn al-Ikhwa, Maʿālim al-qurba, p. 260; Goldziher, “Muslim Education”, p. 203.

¹⁰⁴ Tājj al-Dīn al-Subkī, Muʿīd al-niʿam wa-mubīd al-niqam (Beirut, 1986), p. 101.

¹⁰⁵ Ibn al-Ḥājj, Madkhal, iv, pp. 295–299.

¹⁰⁶ Ḥazāwira is the plural of ḥazawwar.

¹⁰⁷ See Ibn Māja, Sunan, (ed.) M. Fuʾād ʿAbd al-Bāqī, 2 vols (Cairo, n.d.), ḥadīth no. 61; al-Bayhaqī, al-Sunan al-kubrā, (ed.) M. ʿAbd al-Qādir ʿAṭā, 3rd edition, 11 vols (Beirut, 2003), ḥadīth no. 5292.

¹⁰⁸ Ibn al-Aʿrābī, K. al-Muʿjam, (ed.) ʿAbd al-Muḥsin al-Ḥusaynī, 3 vols (Dammam, 1997), ii, p. 485.

¹⁰⁹ Al-Lalikāʾī, Sharḥ uṣūl iʿtiqād ahl al-sunna wa-l-jamāʿa, (ed.) Nashʾat al-Miṣrī, 2 vols (Alexandria, 2001) i, pp. 445–446 (no. 932); Abū Nuʿaym al-Aṣbahānī, Ḥilyat al-awliyāʾ wa-ṭabaqāt al-aṣfiyāʾ, 10 vols (Beirut, 1996), ix, p. 8.

¹¹⁰ Ibn Abī Shayba, al-Muṣannaf, (ed.) M. ʿAwāma, 26 vols (Jeddah, Dār al-Qibla, Beirut, 2006), ḥadīth no. 38677.

¹¹¹ Abū Bakr b. Hārūn al-Khallāl, al-Sunna, (ed.) ʿAṭiyya al-Zahrānī, 7 vols, (Riyadh, 1989–99), v, p. 120 (no. 1768).

¹¹² Ibn ʿAsākir, Tārīkh Madīnat al-Salām wa-akhbār muḥaddithīhā wa-dhikr quṭṭānihā al-ʿulamāʾ min ghayr ahlihā wa-wāridīhā, (ed.) Bashshār ʿA. Maʿrūf, 17 vols (Beirut, 2001), vi, p. 575.

¹¹³ Abū Bakr al-Mālikī, Riyāḍ al-nufūs fī ṭabaqāt ʿulamāʾ al-Qayrawān wa-Ifrīqiya wa-zuhhādihim wa-nussākihim wa-siyar min akhbārihim wa-faḍāʾilihim wa-awṣāfihim, (eds.) Bashīr al-Bakkūsh and M. al-ʿArūsī al-Maṭwī, 2nd edition, 2 vols (Beirut, 1994), ii, pp. 425–427.

¹¹⁴ Abū al-ʿAbbās b. ʿIdhārī, al-Bayān al-mughrib fī ikhtiṣār akhbār mulūk al-Andalus wa-l-Maghrib, (eds.) Bashshār ʿAwwād and Maḥmūd B. ʿAwwād, 4 vols (Tunis, [n.d.]), i, pp. 168–173.

¹¹⁵ In ancient Greece, the term paideia was used to denote rearing and education of the Greek citizens.

¹¹⁶ See Günther, “Principles of Teaching”, p. 72. See also id., “Be Masters”, p. 368.

¹¹⁷ On such different intellectual groups and their influences on education, see Ḥasan ʿAbd al-ʿĀl, al-Tarbiya al-islāmiyya fī al-qarn al-rābiʿ al-hijrī (Cairo, 1978), pp. 96–101; Bahiyy al-Dīn Zayyān, al-Ghazālī wa-lamaḥāt ʿan al-ḥayā al-fikriyya al-islāmiyya (Cairo, [n.d.]), pp. 3–30; Maʿlūm, al-Fikr al-tarbawī ʿind al-Khaṭīb al-Baghdādī, pp. 46–50.

¹¹⁸ Al-Jāḥiẓ, K. al-Muʿallimīn, p. 44. See also Gunther, “Advice for Teachers”, p. 116.

¹¹⁹ A good example is the list of books that Ibn al-ʿArabī recommended as significant readings for ‘boys’: ʿAwāṣim (ed.) al-Khaṭīb, p. 178.

¹²⁰ Ibid.

¹²¹ See Abū Khalīl, Ḥaḍāra, p. 434.

¹²² Al-ʿĀlim wa-l-mutʿallim: Riwāyat Abī Muqātil ʿan Abī Ḥanīfa raḍiya Allāh ʿanhumā, (ed.) M. Zāhid al-Kawtharī (Cairo, 1949). On this work see, Joseph Schacht, “An Early Murciʾite Treatise: The Kitāb al-ʿĀlim wa-l-mutaʿallim”, Oriens, 17 (1964), pp. 96–117; Günther, “Principles of Teaching”, pp. 73–74.

¹²³ Gérard Lecomte, “Le livre des règles de conduite des maîtres d’école par Ibn Saḥnūn”, Revue des études Islamiques 21 (1953), pp. 77–105; Eǧitim ve öǧretimin esaslari: Ādābu'l-muallimīn, (transltion) M. Faruk Bayraktar (Istanbul, 1996); ʿA. Shams al-Dīn, al-Fikr al-tarbawī ʿind Ibn Saḥnūn wa-l-Qābisī; S. M. Ismail, “Muhammad Ibn Saḥnūn: An Educationalist and a Faqīh”, Muslim Education Quarterly 12 (1995), pp. 37–54.

¹²⁴ Volume II of Ibn al-Hājj's Madkhal includes a chapter (pp. 305–334) entitled “Faṣl fī Dhikr Ādāb al-Muʾaddib [A Chapter on the Rules of Conduct for the Schoolmaster]”, where he addresses the muʾaddib al-ṣibyān as such.

¹²⁵ Ibn Saḥnūn, Ādāb al-muʿallimīn mimmā dawwana Muḥammad b. Saḥnūn ʿan abīh, (ed.) Ḥasan Ḥusnī ʿAbd al-Wahhāb (Tunis, 1931).

¹²⁶ See, in particular, Günther, “Advice for Teachers”, pp. 92–110.

¹²⁷ See Ibn Saḥnūn, Ādāb al-muʿallimīn, pp. 94–137. For interesting scenes of the kuttāb classes, as depicted on (late) medieval Muslim earthenware and manuscripts, see Baer, “Muslim Teaching Institutions”, pp. 73–102.

¹²⁸ Günther, “Advice for Teachers”, pp. 96–97; id., “Be Masters”, p. 370.

¹²⁹ Gilliot, “Introduction”, p. xliii.

¹³⁰ Lecomte, “Règles de conduite des maîtres d’école”, p. 81.

¹³¹ M. Talbi, “Saḥnūn”, EI², viii (1995), pp. 843–845 (p. 844); Günther, “Advice for Teachers”, p. 92.

¹³² See Abū Bakr al-Mālikī, Riyāḍ al-nufūs i, pp. 443–444; ʿIyāḍ b. Mūsā, Tartīb al-madārik wa-taqrīb al-masālik li-maʿrifat aʿlām madhhab Mālik, (ed.) Muḥammad al-Ṭanjī, 2nd edition, 8 vols (Rabat,1983), iv, pp. 204–205; Ismail, “Muhammad Ibn Saḥnūn”, p. 37.

¹³³ Abū Bakr al-Mālikī, Riyāḍ al-nufūs i, pp. 444–445; Günther, “Advice for Teachers”, pp. 93–94.

¹³⁴ On Saḥnūn, see Abū Bakr al-Mālikī, Riyāḍ al-nufūs, i, pp. 345–375; ʿIyāḍ b. Mūsā, Tartīb al-madārik, iv, pp. 45–88; Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn al-Ṣafadī, al-Wāfī bi-l-wafayāt, (eds.) Aḥmad al-Arnaʾūṭ and Turkī Muṣṭafā, 29 vols (Beirut, 2000), xviii, pp. 158–159; Abū al-ʿArab Muḥammad b. Tamīm and Muḥammad b. al-Ḥārith al-Khushanī, Ṭabaqāt ʿulamāʾ Ifrīqiya, (ed.) Muḥammad b. Shanab (Beirut, n.d.), pp. 101–104; Talbi, “Saḥnūn”, pp. 843–845; Jonathan E. Brockopp, “Saḥnūn b. Saʿīd (d. 240/854)”, in Islamic Legal Thought: A Compendium of Muslim Jurists, (eds) O. Arabi, S. Spectorsky and D. Powers (Leiden, 2013), pp. 65–84.

¹³⁵ Talbi, “Saḥnūn”, p. 845. See also Abū Isḥāq al-Shīrāzī, Ṭabaqāt al-fuqahāʾ, (ed.) Iḥsān ʿAbbās (Beirut, 1970), pp. 156–157; ʿIyāḍ b. Mūsā, Tartīb al-madārik, iv, p. 51.

¹³⁶ In Roman times, Tunisia was known as Africa. See Richard St. Barbe Baker, Sahara Conquest (Cambridge, 1966), p. 47.

¹³⁷ For more details on Muḥammad b. Saḥnūn's biography and literary oeuvre in general, see Abū Bakr al-Mālikī, Riyāḍ al-nufūs, i, pp. 443–458; ʿIyāḍ b. Mūsā, Tartīb al-madārik, iv, pp. 204–221; Ibn Tamīm, Ṭabaqāt, pp. 1291–32; G. Lecomte, “Muḥammad b. Saḥnūn”, in EI², vii (1993), p. 409; Ismail, “Muhammad Ibn Saḥnūn”, pp. 37–54; Günther, “Advice for Teachers”, pp. 92–95; id., “Principles of Teaching”, p. 76; Camilla Adang, “Intra- and Interreligious Controversies in 3rd/9th Century Qayrawān: The Polemics of Muḥammad b. Saḥnūn”, Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 36 (2009), pp. 281–310.

¹³⁸ See Abū Bakr al-Mālikī, Riyāḍ al-nufūs, i, p. 443; ʿIyāḍ b. Mūsā, Tartīb al-madārik, iv, p. 207; Christian-Muslim Relations: A Bibliographical History – Volume 1 (600–900), (eds.) David Thomas and Barbara Roggema (Leiden, 2009), pp. 738–739; Günther, “Advice for Teachers”, p. 94.

¹³⁹ Lecomte, “Muḥammad b. Saḥnūn”, p. 409.

¹⁴⁰ ʿIyāḍ b. Mūsā, Tartīb al-madārik, iv, pp. 55–69 (especially. pp. 55–57); Ibn ʿIdhārī, Bayān, i, pp. 150–151; Ibn Tamīm, Ṭabaqāt, p. 102; Brockopp, “Saḥnūn b. Saʿīd”, pp. 72–76 (especially p. 75). See also Abū Bakr al-Mālikī, Riyāḍ al-nufūs, i, pp. 355–357; Talbi, “Saḥnūn”, p. 844.

¹⁴¹ See also ʿIyāḍ b. Mūsā, Tartīb al-madārik, iv, pp. 212–215; Ibn Tamīm, Ṭabaqāt, p. 131; Lecomte, “Muḥammad b. Saḥnūn”, p. 409.

¹⁴² See al-Mālikī, Riyāḍ al-nufūs i, pp. 455–458; Lecomte, “Muḥammad b. Saḥnūn”, p. 409; Günther, “Advice for Teachers”, p. 94.

¹⁴³ Although now missing, this work is referred to be al-Dhahabī, Siyar aʿlām al-nubalāʾ, (ed.) Shuʿayb al-Arnaʾūṭ and others, 29 vols (Beirut, 1981–88), xv, p. 58. See also Maḥmūd Qumbur, Dirāsāt Turāthiyya fī al-tarbiya al-islāmiyya (Doha, 1985), p. 17; Yaḥyā Ḥ. Murād, Ādāb al-ʿālim wa-l-mutaʿallim ʿind al-mufakkirīn al-muslimīn (Beirut, 2003), p. 97; Gilliot, “Introduction”, p. xlv.

¹⁴⁴ See Abū Bakr b. al-Sunnī, Riyāḍat al-mutaʿallimīn, pp. 135–137.

¹⁴⁵ It was mentioned by Ibn Khaldūn, Muqaddima, ii, p. 356. See also Risāla ibn Abī Zayd al-Qayrawānī (Mālik al-Ṣaghīr), (ed.) Aḥmad M. al-Ṭahṭāwī (Cairo, 2005), pp. 15–16.

¹⁴⁶ See Qumbur, Dirāsāt Turāthiyya, p. 18; Yaḥyā Murād, Ādāb al-ʿālim, p. 97; Khalīl Ṭawṭaḥ, al-tarbiya ʿind al-ʿarab, p. 130 ff.

¹⁴⁷ This book was mentioned by: Ibn Bashkuwāl, al-Ṣila, ed. Ibrāhīm al-Abyārī, 3 vols (Cairo, 1989), i, p. 75; Ismāʿīl al-Baghdādī, Īḍāḥ al-maknūn fī al-dhayl ʿalā ‘Kashf al-ẓunūn’, 2 vols (Istanbul, 1945), i, p. 4.

¹⁴⁸ See H. R. Idris, “Al-Ḳābisī”, in EI², iv (1997), p. 341.

¹⁴⁹ On the book of al-Qābisī, see Ibrahim Salama, Bibliographie analytique et critique touchant la question de l'enseigment en Egypt depuis la période des mameluks jusq’à nos jours (Caire, 1938).

¹⁵⁰ (eds.) Aḥmad J. al-Badawī and Rābiḥ Bunār (Algiers, 1975).

¹⁵¹ See Ṭāhā Ḥusayn, al-Ayyām (Cairo, 2013), pp. 27ff.; Fatima Mernissi, Dreams of Trespass: Tales of a harem girlhood (Reading, MA, 1995), p. 96. The New Cambridge History of Islam, iv, p. 671.

¹⁵² Cf. Sobhi Tawil, “Qurʾānic Education and Social Change in Northern Morocco: Perspectives from Chefchaouen”, Comparative Education Review 50 (2006), pp. 496–517 (pp. 498, 503–505); Tahir Abbas, “Traditional and Modern Muslim Education at the Core and Periphery: Enduring Challenge”, in Handbook of Islamic Education, (eds) H. Daun and R. Arjmand (Cham, 2018), pp. 1–12. Even the school supplies in the medieval katātīb, such as the writing tablet and the calamus, remained strikingly the same. On the writing tools in the time of the Prophet and the ṣaḥābīs, see al-Kattānī, Tarātīb, ii, pp. 166–168 (as well as the following references in this footnote). On katātīb in the modern times, see Landau, “Maktab”, pp. 196–197; ʿAbd al-Rahman al-Tijānī, al-Katātīb al-qurʾāniyya bi-Nadrūma min 1900 ilā 1977 (Algiers, 1983). ʿAbd al-Laṭīf b. Duhaysh, al-Katātīb fī al-Ḥaramayn al-Sharīfayn wa-mā ḥawlihimā (Makka, 1986); ʿĀrif A. Ismāʿīl, Tārikh nashʾat al-taʿlīm wa-intishārih wa-taṭawwurih fī Taʿizz (Taizz [?], 2018); A. Miṣbāḥ Suḥaym, “Ḥayāt al-katātīb wa-adabiyyāt al-taʿlīm al-dīnī fī Lībyā”, Majallat Uṣūl al-Dīn 2 (2017), pp. 329–359. On the katātīb under the Ottomans, see, for example, Muhannad Mubayyiḍīn, “Mulāḥaẓāt ḥawl taʿlīm al-ṣibyān fī madīnat Dimashq fī al-ʿahd al-ʿuthmānī: 922-1337/1516-1918”, al-Majalla al-Urduniyya li-l-Tārīkh wa-l-Āthār 6 (2012), pp. 110–134; Mabrūk B. al-Daʿdar, “al-Katātīb: nashʾatuhā wa-anmāṭuhā wa-atharuhā fī taʿallum wa-taʿlīm al-qurʾān al-karīm”, in Faʿāliyyāt al-Muʾtamar al-Duwalī al-Thānī li-Taṭwīr al-Dirāsāt al-Qurʾāniyya (Riyadh, [n.d.]).

¹⁵³ Al-Ahwānī, Tarbiya, pp. 97–98.

¹⁵⁴ See Ibn Saḥnūn, Ādāb al-muʿallimīn, pp. 75ff; al-Qābisī, Risāla mufaṣṣila, pp. 92ff; al-Ghazālī, Ihyāʾ, p. 957. This view was also held by al-Shāfiʿī. See Abū al-Barkāt al-Ghazzī, al-Durr al-naḍīd fī adab al-mufīd wa-l-mustafīd, (ed.) Abū Yaʿqūb al-Miṣrī (Giza, 2009), p. 111.

¹⁵⁵ Ibn Saḥnūn, Ādāb al-muʿallimīn, p. 102; al-Qābisī, Risāla mufaṣṣila, pp. 113–114; al-Ghazālī: Iḥyāʾ, p. 956. See also Ṭalas, al-Tarbiya wa-l-taʿlīm fī al-islām, pp. 59–60.

¹⁵⁶ See Ibn Saḥnūn, Ādāb al-muʿallimīn, pp. 134–135; al-Qābisī, Risāla mufaṣṣila, pp. 118–119.

¹⁵⁷ See supra as well as al-Ghazālī, Iḥyāʾ, p. 956.

¹⁵⁸ Ibn Abī Zayd, Risāla, p. 16; al-Nafarāwī, Fawākih, i, pp. 48–50.

¹⁵⁹ See al-Dārimī, Sunan, (ed.) H. Salīm al-Dārānī, 4 vols (Riyadh, 2000), ḥadīth no. 3388.

¹⁶⁰ Al-Nafarāwī, Fawākih, i, p. 50.

¹⁶¹ See Baiza, “Islamic Education”, p. 5.

¹⁶² See Ibn Saḥnūn, Ādāb al-muʿallimīn, pp. 94–99; al-Maghrāwī, Jawāmiʿ al-ikhtiṣār, pp. 17–25.

¹⁶³ On the parts of the Qurʾān which were usually memorised by children, see al-Qasṭallānī, Irshād al-sārī li-sharḥ ‘Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī’, (ed.) M. ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz al-Khālidī, 15 vols (Beirut, 2016), xi, pp. 309–310; Mubayyiḍīn, “Mulāḥaẓāt ḥawl taʿlīm al-ṣibyān”, pp. 121–122.

¹⁶⁴ See, in this regard, Y. Mahnaz Faruqi, “Contributions of Islamic Scholars to the Scientific Enterprise”, International Education Journal 7 (2006), pp. 391–399 (pp. 392–393).

¹⁶⁵ Ibn Saḥnūn, Ādāb al-muʿallimīn, pp. 75–83. See also al-Ghazālī, Minhājj, p. 77.

¹⁶⁶ William Graham and Navid Kermani, “Recitation and Aesthetic Reception”, in The Cambridge Companion to the Qurʾān, (ed.) Jane D. McAuliffe (Cambridge, 2006), pp. 115–142 (p. 121)

¹⁶⁷ On how penmanship in particular was taught and practised in the katātīb, see Shihāb al-Dīn al-Nuwayrī, Nihāyat al-arab fī funun al-adab, 18 vols, (Cairo, 1923-55[?]), ix, p. 216. See also Tritton, Materials on Muslim Education, p. 73; Baer, “Muslim Teaching Institutions”, p. 86.

¹⁶⁸ Ibn Ḥazm did not recommend a thorough study of grammar, unless it was the learner's plan to make it his career: Marātib al-ʿulūm, pp. 66–67. Surely, however, Ibn Ḥazm, like al-Jāḥiẓ, was advising against high-level grammatical arcana, rather than the ‘preliminary knowledge of grammar and Arabic language’ that is here meant. Studying grammar as a formal discipline to understand language is like putting the cart before the horse in primary education, particularly in children's native language, as they naturally learn from listening and repeating, particularly through engagement in stories and narratives. In this connection, see also Ibn Rajab al-Ḥanbalī, Bayān faḍl ʿilm al-salaf ʿalā ʿilm al-khalaf, (ed.) Muḥammad b. Nāṣir al-ʿAjmī, 2nd edition (Riyadh, 1986), pp. 32, 40.

¹⁶⁹ I will investigate this topic in detail in a forthcoming article provisionally entitled “Medieval Muslim Katātīb between Independent Thinking and Rote Learning”.

¹⁷⁰ See Gilʿadi, “Individualism and Conformity”, pp. 104–105.

¹⁷¹ On Ibn al-ʿArabī, see Saʿīd Aʿrāb, Maʿa al-qāḍī Abī Bakr ibn al-ʿArabī (Beirut, 1987), pp. 9–49; J. Robson, “Ibn al-ʿArabī”, in EI², iii (1986), p. 707.

¹⁷² Ibn Khaldūn, Muqaddima, ii, p. 355.

¹⁷³ Ibn Saḥnūn, Ādāb al-muʿallimīn, p. 106; al-Qābisī, Risāla mufaṣṣala, p. 133. See also al-Nafarāwī, Fawākih, i, pp. 43, 50.

¹⁷⁴ Jalāl al-Dīn al-Suyūṭī, al-Itqān fī ʿulūm al-Qurʾān, (eds.) Shuʿayb al-Arnāʾūṭ and M. Shaykh Muṣṭafā, (Beirut, 2008), pp. 384–389.

¹⁷⁵ Al-Qābisī, Risāla Mufaṣṣila, p. 117.

¹⁷⁶ See Aʿrāb, Maʿa al-qāḍī Abī Bakr, p. 160.

¹⁷⁷ This is the range of age that he then recommended as a most suitable for the memorisation of the Qurʾān (supra).

¹⁷⁸ It should be noted, in this connection, that only very few among the Prophet's Companions are reported to have memorised the whole of the Qurʾān in his time. See al-Kattānī, Tarātīb, i, pp. 105–107. See also Shalabī, Tarbiya, pp. 50–51.

¹⁷⁹ Ibn al-ʿArabī, Aḥkām al-Qurʾān, iv, p. 349.

¹⁸⁰ See al-Nafarāwī, Fawākih, i, p. 50.

¹⁸¹ See Ibn Rushd al-Jadd, al-Bayān wa-l-taḥṣīl wa-l-sharḥ wa-l-tawjīh wa-l-taʿlīl fī masāʾil ‘al-Mustakhraja’, (eds.) M. Ḥajjī and others, 2nd edition, 20 vols (Beirut, 1988), xviii, p. 287; al-Nafarāwī, Fawākih, i, p. 50; al-Kattānī, Tarātīb, ii, p. 202.

¹⁸² See al-Qasṭallānī, Irshād al-sārī li-sharḥ Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhari, (ed.) M. ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz al-Khālidī, 15 vols (Beirut, 2016), xi, p. 309.

¹⁸³ In medieval Arabic literature, ‘the Maghreb’ was usually used to refer to Algeria and Morocco as well as the Muslim communities of Sub-Saharan Africa. Sometimes, both Libya and Tunisia (i.e. all lands west of Egypt) were included.

¹⁸⁴ Ibn Khaldūn, Muqaddima, ii, pp. 353–355. Later, “some calligraphy and a smattering of arithmetic were added in some katātīb in Turkey as well as in Iran, where also Islamic history and fragments of Persian poetry (e.g. from Saʿdī and Ḥāfiẓ’) were occasionally included, from the 7th/13th century onwards […]”. Landau, “Kuttāb”, p. 568.

¹⁸⁵ See also Graham and Kermani, “Recitation”, p. 121; Tritton, “Muslim Education”, p. 85. Cf. Gilʿadi, “Individualism and Conformity”, pp. 103–105. This thinking on the importance of teaching the children ‘useful knowledge’, particularly religious principles and good manners, before they would be assaulted by bad manners, is also theorised by Ibn Abī Zayd (Risāla, pp. 15–16); Ibn Sīnā (K. al-Siyāsa, p. 83); and al-Ghazālī (Minhājj, p. 76). Cf. the best habits a child should be instilled with according to Ibn al-Ḥājj (who also cites Ibn al-ʿArabī's missing Marāqī al-zulaf): Madkhal, iv, pp. 295–299. See also Tritton, “Muslim Education”, pp. 82–83.

¹⁸⁶ Ibn Khaldūn, Muqaddima, ii, p. 355.

¹⁸⁷ See Ahmed Khaled, “Caractère Génial du Système Educatif d'Ibn Khaldoun”, in Revue Pédagogique (1963).

¹⁸⁸ Ibn Khaldūn, Muqaddima, ii, p. 254.

¹⁸⁹ Ibid.

¹⁹⁰ See M. Talbi, “Ibn Khaldūn”, in EI², iii (1986), pp. 825–831 (p. 827); Allen J. Fromherz, Ibn Khaldun: Life and Times (Edinburgh, 2011), pp. 60–96; Robert Brunschvig, La Berbérie orientale sous les Ḥafṣides des origines à la fin du XVe siècle: Tome II (Paris, 1947), pp. 391–392; al-Abrāshī, Tarbiya islāmiyya, p. 274–275.

¹⁹¹ Gunther, “Be Masters”, p. 369. See also id, “Advice for Teachers”, p. 90.

¹⁹² The Brethren of Purity and their pedagogical approach have been discussed by a number of studies. See, for example, Louis Gardet, “Notion et principes de l'éducation dans la pensée arabo-musulmane”, Revue des études islamiques 44 (1976), pp. 1–16; ʿAbd al-Amīr Shams al-Dīn, al-Falsafa al-tarbawiyya ʿind Ikhwān al-Ṣafā min khilāl rasāʾilihim, (Beirut, 1988). See also Liana Saif, “Ikhwān al-Ṣafāʾ's Religious Reform and Magic: Beyond the Ismaʿili Hypothesis”, Journal of Islamic Studies 30 (2019), pp. 34–68.

¹⁹³ Rasāʾil ikhwān al-ṣafā wa-khullān al-wafā, (ed.) Khayr al-Dīn al-Ziriklī, 4 vols (Cairo, 1928), iii, p. 60.

¹⁹⁴ For English translation, see Constantine K. Zurayk, The Refinement of Character (Beirut, 1968). On the educational effect of Ibn Miskawayh and his work, see Günther, “Principles of Teaching”, pp. 80–82; Nadia Jamal al-Din, “Miskawayh (A.H. 320–421/A.D. 932–1030)”, Prospects: The Quarterly Review of Comparative Education 24 (1994), pp. 131–152.

¹⁹⁵ On his, see Ibn Miskawayh, Tahdhīb, p. 288 (n. 1).

¹⁹⁶ See Ibn Miskawayh, Tahdhīb, pp. 288–95. Al-Ghazālī's subchapter on educating children is clearly informed by this chapter of Ibn Miskawayh. See al-Ghazālī, Iḥyāʾ, pp. 955–958.

¹⁹⁷ Ibn Miskawayh, Tahdhīb, p. 290.

¹⁹⁸ Ibid., pp. 289–291.

¹⁹⁹ The concept that learning arithmetic and geometry makes people truthful though may seem esoteric to the modern reader. However, it is certainly an interesting philosophical concept. Mathematics ultimately deals with a simulacrum of reality (i.e. a conceit or lie) rather than reality itself.

²⁰⁰ Ibn Miskawayh, Tahdhīb, pp. 282–283.

²⁰¹ He is said to have authored some 450 works. On Ibn Sīnā's life and intellectual venture, See, among others, Dimitri Gutas, Avicenna and the Aristotelian Tradition: Introduction to Reading Avicenna's Philosophical Works, 2nd revised edition (Leiden, 2014); William E. Gohlman, The life of Ibn Sina: A Critical Edition and Annotated Translation (Albany, 1974).

²⁰² See Ibn Sīnā, K. al-Siyāsa, pp. 7–12; Mirbabaev, “Development of Education”, p. 34; Gilʿadi, “Individualism and Conformity”, p. 115.

²⁰³ Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn b. Sīnā, al-Qānūn fī al-ṭibb, (ed.) M. Amīn al-Ḍannāwī, 3 vols (Beirut, 1999), i, p. 220. See also Mirbabaev, “Development of Education”, p. 34; Günther, “Be Masters”, pp. 378–379. According to one ḥadīth quoted by al-Ghazālī, education, or rather disciplining (taʾdīb), should begin once the child is six years of age: Iḥyāʾ, p. 681. See also Goldziher, “Muslim Education”, p. 200. According to Ibn al-Ḥājj al-ʿAbdarī, a child should be sent to the maktab when he is seven years old―not before: Madkhal, ii, pp. 315–316. See also Tritton, “Muslim Education”, p. 82.

²⁰⁴ Ibn Sīnā, Siyāsa, p. 84. See also Tritton, “Muslim Education”, p. 83; Shams al-Dīn, al-Madhhab al-tarbawī ʿind Ibn Sīnā, pp. 134–135; Günther, “Be Masters”, p. 380.

²⁰⁵ Ibn Miskawayh, Tahdhīb, p. 290. The same thing was stressed by al-Ghazālī: Iḥyāʾ, p. 956.

²⁰⁶ See Goldziher, “Muslim Education”, p. 201.

²⁰⁷ Ibn Sīna's Kitāb al-Siyāsa, pp. 84–85. See also Mirbabaev, “Development of Education”, p. 34; Günther, “Be Masters”, p. 380; Tritton, “Muslim Education”, p. 83.

²⁰⁸ On post-kuttāb education in Baghdad, for example, see Makdisi, “Muslim Institutions”, pp. 1–56.

²⁰⁹ For the range of scholars’ writings on how knowledge was appraised and classified in medieval Islamic times, see L. A. Bsoul, Medieval Islamic World: An Intellectual History of Science and Politics (New York, 2018); Omar A. Qureshi, “Disciplinarity and Islamic Education”, in Philosophies of Islamic Education: Historical Perspectives and Emerging Discourses, (eds.) Nadeem Memon and Mujadad Zaman (New York, 2016), pp. 94–111; Thomas F. Glick, Steven Livesey and Faith Wallis, Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia (New York, 2014); Peter E. Pormann, Islamic Medical and Scientific Tradition (London, 2011); Howard R. Turner, Science in Medieval Islam: An Illustrated Introduction (Austin, 2010); Muzaffar Iqbal, The Making of Islamic Science (Petaling Jaya, 2009); Wim Raven and Anna Akasoy (eds.), Islamic Thought in the Middle Ages: Studies in Text, Transmission and Translation, in Honour of Hans Daiber (Leiden, 2008); J. P. Hogendijk, and Abdelhamid I. Ṣabra (eds.), The Enterprise of Science in Islam: New Perspectives (Cambridge, MA, 2003); Bassam Tibi, Islam between Culture and Politics (Basingstoke, 2001); Richard Hovannisian and Georges Sabagh, Religion and Culture in Medieval Islam (Cambridge, 1999); Osman Bakar, Classification of Knowledge in Islam: A Study in Islamic Philosophies of Science 2nd edition (Cambridge, 1998); Fadlou Shehadi, Philosophies of Music in Medieval Islam (Leiden, 1995); ʿAlī ʿAbd Allāh Daffāʿ and John J. Stroyls, Studies on the Exact Science in Medieval Islam (New York, 1984); S. Hossein Nasr, Science and Civilization in Islam (Cambridge, MA, 1968); Iḥsān ʿAbbaṣ, “Taṣnīf al-ʿulūm ʿind al-ʿarab”, al-Mawsim al-Thaqāfī li-Majmaʿal-Lugha al-ʿArabiyya 1 (1983), pp. 67–99; Jalāl M. Mūsā, “Taṣnīf al-ʿulūm ʿind al-ʿulamāʾ al-muslimīn”, al-Muslim al-Muʿāṣir 11 (1984), pp. 11–29; ʿIṣmat Naṣṣār, Taṣnīf al-ʿulūm fī al-falsafa al-islāmiyya (Cairo, 2014).

²¹⁰ In some Muslim cultures, however, calligraphy evolved to a kind of spiritual pursuit.

²¹¹ Ibn ʿAbd al-Barr al-Andalusī, Jāmiʿ bayān al-ʿilm wa-faḍlih, ed. Abū al-Ashbāl al-Zuhayrī, 2 vols (Dammam, 1994), ii, pp. 788–790.

²¹² Al-Ghazālī, Iḥyāʾ, pp. 22–23.

²¹³ See al-Ghazālī, Iḥyāʾ, pp. 21–52; id., al-Risāla al-laduniyya, (Cairo, 1910), pp. 5–7, 15–23; id., Mīzān al-ʿamal, pp. 349–360; See also an interesting chapter by al-Ghazālī on “what the public think are among meritorious sciences but they are not”: Iḥyāʾ, pp. 38–41; id., K. Fātiḥat al-ʿulūm (Cairo, 1904), pp. 35–47. On al-Ghazālī's classification of knowledge and its seekers, see Bakar, Classification of Knowledge in Islam, pp. 181–220; Günther, “Principles of Teaching”, p. 84; Yaḥyā b. Sharaf al-Nawawī, Ādab al-ʿālim wa-l-mutaʿallim wa-l-muftī wa-l-mustaftī wa-faḍl ṭālib al-ʿilm, (Tanta, 1987), pp. 23–28. See also al-Ghazzī, Durr, pp. 90–115; ʿAbd al-Bāsiṭ b. Mūsā al-ʿAlmawī, al-Muʿīd fī adab al-mufīd wa-l-mustafīd, (ed.) Aḥmad ʿUbayd (Damascus, 1931), pp. 20–25; Zayn al-Dīn al-ʿĀmilī, Munyat al-murīd fī adab al-mufīd wa-l-mustafīd, (ed.) Riḍā al-Mukhtārī (Qom, 1988), pp. 365–83; Aḥmad ʿA. ʿAṭiyya, “Taṣnīf al-ʿulūm ʿind al-Ghazālī”, al-Mawrid 18 (1989), pp. 66–83.

²¹⁴ See, for example, Jane H. Murphy, “Islamicate Knowledge Systems: Circulation, Rationality, and Politics”, in The Wiley Blackwell History of Islam, (ed.) Armando Salvatore and others (Hoboken, NJ, 2018), pp. 479–498.

²¹⁵ Al-Jāḥiẓ, al-Bayān wa-l-tabyīn, iii, p. 374.

²¹⁶ Ibn Khaldūn, Muqaddima, ii, pp. 171–352. See, in particular, how he classified the branches of science: Muqaddima, ii, pp. 171–172, 351–352. See also Yūsuf ʿAddār, “Wāqiʿiyyat taṣnīf al-ʿulūm ʿind Ibn Khaldūn wa-madā ibrāzih li-l takāmul baynahā”, Majallat al-Buḥūth al-ʿIlmiyya wa-l-Dirāsāt al-Islāmiyya 7 (2015), pp. 43–65; Zaynab Riḍwān, “Taṣnīf al-ʿulūm ʿind ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. Khaldūn”, al-Majalla al-Ijtimāʿiyya al-Qawmiyya 40 (1983), pp. 131–173.

²¹⁷ See Ibn Sīnā, Siyāsa, pp. 86–88. See also Tritton, “Muslim Education”, pp. 83–84.

²¹⁸ Maḥmūd ʿAbd al-Laṭīf, al-Fikr al-tarbawī ʿind Ibn Sīnā (Damascus, 2009), p. 103.

²¹⁹ Mirbabaev, “Development of Education”, p. 35.

²²⁰ Al-Muʿjam al-wasīṭ, (eds.) Sh. ʿA. ʿAṭiyya and others, 4th edition. (Cairo, 2004), pp. 525–526. See also Ibn Manẓūr, Lisān, iv, p. 2508.

²²¹ See, for example, al-Jīṭālī, Qanāṭir, i, pp. 86–90; al-Ghazzī, Durr, pp. 90–115. See also Rifāʿa al-Ṭahṭāwī, al-Murshid al-amīn li-l banāt wa-l-banīn, (ed.) Munā A. Abū Zayd (Cairo, 2012), pp. 153–175, 187–191.

²²² Ibn Sīna, Kitāb al-Shifāʾ, (eds.) Georges Qanawātī, Maḥmūd al-Khuḍayrī and Fuʾād al-Ahwānī (Cairo, 1952), pp. 12–16. See also Eugene A. Myers, Arabic Thought and the Western World in the Golden Age of Islam (New York, 1964), p. 33.

²²³ See also ʿilm al-ʾāla vs. ʿilm al-ghāya. Ibn Khaldūn, Muqaddima, ii, p. 351.

²²⁴ Ibn Ḥazm, Marātib al-ʿulūm, pp. 61–90. For more on Ibn Ḥazm's outlook on the types of knowledge, see also his al-Taqrīb li-ḥadd al-manṭiq, (ed.) A. Farīd al-Mazīdī (Beirut, 2003), pp. 145–150; id., al-Talkhīs li-wujūh al-Takhlīṣ, (ed.) ʿAbd al-Ḥaqq al-Turkumānī (Götenborg, 2003).

²²⁵ On Ibn Ḥazm and his conception of the sciences, see Anwar G. Chejne, Ibn Ḥazm (Chicago, 1982); Ḥusayn Muʾnis, “Taṣnīf al-ʿulūm kamā yarāh ibn Hazm”, al-Dirāsāt al-Islāmiyya 13 (1966), pp. 263–265; Sālim Yafūt, “Taṣnīf al-ʿulūm ladā Ibn Ḥazm”, Majallat Kulliyat al-Ādāb wa-l-ʿUlūm al-Insāniyya bi-Jāmiʿat Muḥammad al-Khāmis 9 (1982), pp. 53–91.

²²⁶ Ibn Ḥazm, Marātib al-ʿulūm, pp. 78–89.

²²⁷ Ibid., p. 62.

²²⁸ Here, he means particular types of music, which people in his time believed could turn a coward into a hero and a miser into a generous individual. Also, the perceived hypnotic effect of certain types of Indian music was a subject of controvery among Indian Muslim scholars.

²²⁹ It was also criticised by al-Ghazālī: Iḥyāʾ, i, p. 24.

²³⁰ Abū Bakr b. ʿArabī, al-ʿAwāṣim min al-qawāṣim, (ed.) M. ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Ṣāliḥ (Cairo, 2008), p. 353.

²³¹ Ghāyat al-ḥakīm (or Picatrix), a well-known book on the subject, is said to be written by him. This attribution, however, is a matter of much debate.

²³² Abū Khalīl, Ḥaḍāra, p. 520.

²³³ On what was really meant by ‘kimyāʾ’ in medieval Islamic practices, see Ibn Khaldūn, Muqaddima, ii, pp. 310–319.

²³⁴ Ibn Ḥazm, Marātib al-ʿulūm, pp. 61–62.

²³⁵ Ibid.

²³⁶ Geber was a leading universalist whose scientific oeuvre was later recognised and highly praised by many modern academic authorities including the eminent French polymath, Gustave Le Bon.

²³⁷ See, for example, al-Zarnūjī, Ṭarīq al-taʿallum, pp. 63–64.

²³⁸ Ibn Ḥazm, Marātib al-ʿulūm, pp. 69–72.

²³⁹ Some earlier texts used the term ‘ʿilm al-najm’. See Ibn al-Sunnī, Riyāḍat al-mutaʿallimīn, pp. 330–333.

²⁴⁰ See Ibn Ḥazm, Marātib al-ʿulūm, p. 80; Ibn Rajab, Faḍl ʿilm al-salaf, pp. 32–39. See also E. S. Kennedy, Astronomy and Astrology in the Medieval Islamic World (Aldershot, 1998); G. A. Saliba, History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theory during the Golden Age of Islam (New York, 1994). On astronomy and astronomical timekeeping in medieval Islam, see Iqbal, The Making of Islamic Science, pp. 54–62.

²⁴¹ On religion, philosophy and the sciences in Islam, see Bakar, Classification of Knowledge in Islam, pp. 79–82, 137.

²⁴² On natural sciences in Islam, see Bakar, Classification of Knowledge in Islam, pp. 97–99, 139–140.

²⁴³ Al-Ghazzī, Durr, p. 115.

²⁴⁴ Ibn Ḥazm, Marātib al-ʿulūm, p. 67.

²⁴⁵ See Arnaldez, “Ibn Ḥazm”, pp. 790–799.

²⁴⁶ Ibn Ḥazm, Marātib al-ʿulūm, p. 69.

²⁴⁷ On the mathematical sciences in Islam, see Bakar, Classification of Knowledge in Islam, pp. 137–139; Iqbal, The Making of Islamic Science, pp. 48–54; J. L. Berggren, Episodes in the Mathematics of Medieval Islam (New York, 2014).

²⁴⁸ Most probably, Ibn Ḥazm is here referring to Phaenomena, a pioneering treatise by Euclid on spherical astronomy. The compendiums circulating in the medieval period, however, were actually greatly expanded and enhanced interpretations of ancient classical works.

²⁴⁹ On the study of cosmology, cosmogony and cosmography in medieval Islam, see Iqbal, The Making of Islamic Science, pp. 33 ff.

²⁵⁰ See his chapter on “Maṭlab bayān kurawiyyat al-arḍ [Entry on Demonstrating the Sphericity of the Earth]”. Ibn Ḥazm, al-Fiṣal fī al-milal wa-l-ahwāʾ wa-l-niḥal, (eds.) M. Ibrāhīm Naṣr and ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ʿUmayra, 2nd, 5 vols (Beirut, 1996), ii, pp. 241–255.

²⁵¹ Ibn Ḥazm, Marātib al-ʿulūm, p. 69.

²⁵² Ibid. See also Donald R. Hill, Islamic Science and Engineering (Edinburgh, 1993).

²⁵³ Ibn Ḥazm, Marātib al-ʿulūm, pp. 72–73.

²⁵⁴ Al-Ghazālī, Minhājj, pp. 86–7. See also id., Mīzān al-ʿamal, p. 348.

²⁵⁵ Al-Jāḥiẓ, K. al-Muʿallimīn, p. 44. See also Gunther, “Advice for Teachers”, p. 116.

²⁵⁶ Ibn al-ʿArabī, ʿAwāṣim (ed.) al-Khaṭīb, p. 179.

²⁵⁷ Ibn Khaldūn, Muqaddima, ii, p. 355.

²⁵⁸ Al-Balādhurī, Jumal min ansāb al-ashrāf, (eds.) Suhayl Zakkār and Riyāḍ Ziriklī, 13 vols (Beirut, 1996), vii, p. 207.

²⁵⁹ Ibn Ḥazm, Marātib al-ʿulūm, pp. 73–76, 78ff.

²⁶⁰ See al-Ghazālī, Iḥyāʾ, i, pp. 24–28; al-Zarnūjī: Ṭarīq al-taʿallum, pp. 64–65.

²⁶¹ Ibn Ḥazm, Marātib al-ʿulūm, pp. 63, 83. The same meaning is also conveyed by al-Zarnūjī: Ṭarīq al-taʿallum, p. 68.

²⁶² On the sacred and profane in Islamic law as well as the rights of God and those of humans, see Khaled Abou El Fadl, “The Shariʿah”, in The Oxford Handbook of Islam and Politics, (eds.) John L. Esposito and Emad El-Din Shahin (New York, 2013), pp. 7–26 (esp. pp. 16–19).

²⁶³ The other division is fiqh al-ʿibādāt, ‘laws dealing with matters of ritual’.

²⁶⁴ Al-Ghazālī, Iḥyāʾ, p. 24; Ibn Rajab, Faḍl ʿilm al-salaf, p. 41. See also Gerhard Endress, “Mathematics and Philosophy in Medieval Islam”, in The Enterprise of Science in Islam: New Perspectives, (eds.) J. P. Hogendijk, and Abdelhamid I. Ṣabra (Cambridge, MA, 2003), pp. 121–176.

²⁶⁵ Al-Ghazālī, Iḥyāʾ, pp. 25–26.

²⁶⁶ See, for example, David A. King, Astronomy in the Service of Islam (Aldershot, 1993); id., In Synchrony with the Heavens, Volume 1 Call of the Muezzin (Leiden, 2004).

²⁶⁷ Sarton, George, Introduction to the History of Science, Volume 1 (Washington, 1927), p. 17Google Scholar.

²⁶⁸ Ibn Ḥazm, Marātib al-ʿulūm, pp. 64–65. The same meaning is found in his ‘Mudāwāt al-nufūs’ treatise. See Rasāʾil ibn Ḥazm, i, p. 344.

²⁶⁹ On ʿilm al-hayʾa, see Iqbal, The Making of Islamic Science, p. 12.

²⁷⁰ Ibn Ḥazm, Marātib al-ʿulūm, p. 75.

²⁷¹ See, for example, al-Ghazālī, Iḥyāʾ, p. 31.

²⁷² See Iqbal, The Making of Islamic Science, pp. 24–27.

²⁷³ It is worthy of mention that Roger Bacon recurrently relied on Ibn Sīnā to interpret Aristotle.

²⁷⁴ See Sidelko, Paul, “The Condemnation of Roger Bacon”, Journal of Medieval History 22 (1996), pp. 69–81CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Thorndike, Lynn, “The True Roger Bacon2, The American Historical Review 21 (1916), pp. 237–257CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 468–480. Cf. Shank, Michael H., Galileo Goes to Jail, and Other Myths about Science and Religion (Cambridge, MA, 2009)Google Scholar; Lindberg, David, “Medieval Science and Its Religious Context”, Osiris, 10 (1995), pp. 60–79CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²⁷⁵ See Sabra, A. I., “Ibn al-Haytham's Revolutionary Project in Optics: The Achievement and the Obstacle2, in The Enterprise of Science in Islam: New Perspectives, (eds.) Hogendijk, J. P., and Ṣabra, Abdelhamid I. (Cambridge, MA, 2003), pp. 85–118Google Scholar.