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The discourse of travel, society, and nation in Republican China
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 27 March 2025
Abstract
In the late 1920s and the 1930s a fully developed discourse emerged in China that linked either travel as a general concept (mostly with a primary focus on its leisure form) or tourism more specifically to the interests of society and the nation. This article analyses its development as it evolved in the first half of the twentieth century. For this purpose, it first probes into the discourse that surrounded, from the 1920s onwards, the constitution and the activity of the Travel Department of the Shanghai Commercial and Savings Bank and of the China Travel Service, in line with which the travel service that one and the other provided was considered to involve dimensions of service to the nation and to society. The article proceeds by looking into two separate but ultimately linked lines of discourse that came to full bloom during the Nanjing decade and after: one that linked travel to the building of society, and another that linked it to the strengthening of the nation.
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References
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93 Cao Yabo, You Chuan riji (Shanghai, 1929), preface, p. 1.
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95 Xin'an xiaoxue ertong lüxingtuan, Women de lüxing ji (Shanghai, 1935), [9], p. 17.
96 Ibid, [9], pp. 18–19.
97 See Yusheng Yao, ‘Rediscovering Tao Xingzhi as an educational and social revolutionary’, Twentieth-Century China 27.2 (2002), pp. 102–103.
98 Xin'an xiaoxue ertong lüxingtuan, Women de lüxing ji, [13], p. 23.
99 Ibid.
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102 Ibid, [13], pp. 22–23.
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104 Xihu ertong lüxingtuan, Xihu ertong lüxing ji, pp. 16, 119.
105 Ibid, to the reader, p. 1.
106 See, for instance, Liangyou 116 (15 April 1936), p. 65.
107 Ye Yiyi, ‘Likai xuexiao jiating bu yong fuxiong shizhang lingdao de Xihu ertong lüxingtuan’, Xin shaonian 1.8 (1936), p. 54.
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109 Wang Huanwen, ‘Zhongguo ji ying tichang lüxing shiye’, Lüxing zazhi 5.11 (1931), p. 65.
110 Zhongguo lüxingshe baogaoshu, [1933], p. 18.
111 List of Japanese Exhibitors to A Century of Progress International Exhibition at Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A. 1933, University of Illinois at Chicago, Special Collections, A Century of Progress Records, COP16, Box 20, Folder 16-289, Japan—Foreign Countries, p. 21. On the Manchuria pavilion, see K. Shepherdson-Scott, ‘Conflicting politics and contesting borders: exhibiting (Japanese) Manchuria at the Chicago World's Fair, 1933–34’, The Journal of Asian Studies 74.3 (2015), pp. 544–557.
112 Official Guide Book of the Fair (Chicago, 1933), p. 95.
113 The Progress of Manchuria, University of Illinois at Chicago, Special Collections, A Century of Progress Records, COP16, Box 20, Folder 16-289, Japan—Foreign Countries.
114 R. Hidemichi Akagi, Understanding Manchuria: A Handbook of Facts, New York, November 1932, University of Illinois at Chicago, Special Collections, A Century of Progress Records, COP16, Box 20, Folder 16-289, Japan—Foreign Countries.
115 Shepherdson-Scott, ‘Conflicting Politics and Contesting Borders’, pp. 542, 557–561.
116 Beiping youlan qu jianshe jihua, Beiping shi zhengfu, 1934, pp. 1–3.
117 Ibid, p. 1. On the view that this argument, though seemingly far-fetched, could have been convincing, given the concerns about national defence, see M. Yue Dong, Republican Beijing: The City and Its Histories (Berkeley, LA and London, 2003), pp. 91–92.
118 Zhao Junhao, ‘Lüxing jiangzuo: Wang Rutang xiansheng fangwen ji’, Lüxing zazhi 9.10 (1935), p. 67.
119 Yajun Mo, Touring China, pp. 174–178.
120 Zhichao, ‘Lüxing xinxun’, Lüxing yuekan 5.3 (1930), p. 53.
121 Ibid, pp. 53–54.
122 Zhao Junhao, ‘Dongbei jihen ji [si]’, Lüxing zazhi 3.11 (1929), p. 35; see also Yajun Mo, Touring China, p. 183.
123 Zhao Junhao, ‘Bianzhe zhi yan’, Lüxing zazhi 5.11 (1931), n.p.
124 Lu Zuofu, Dongbei youji, Chengdu shuju, 1931, preface, p. 1.
125 Ibid, preface, p. 2.
126 Ibid, n.p.
127 See L. Young, Japan's Total Empire: Manchuria and the Culture of Wartime Imperialism (Berkeley, LA and London, 1999), pp. 259, 268; B. Kushner, The Thought War: Japanese Imperial Propaganda (Honolulu, 2006), p. 44; Kawamura Minato, Manshū tetsudō maboroshi ryokō (Tokyo, 2002), passim, e.g. pp. 70, 75, 170–173; and K. J. Ruoff, Imperial Japan at Its Zenith: The Wartime Celebration of the Empire's 2,600th Anniversary (Ithaca and London, 2010), p. 130.
128 Tsūrisuto 21.3 (1933), n.p.
129 Gu Huiyun, ‘Su Wan jiaotache lüxing zhi’, Lüxing zazhi 11.1 (1937), p. 64.
130 ‘Yi yue yi tan’, Lüxing zazhi 11.1 (1937), n.p.
131 Gu Huiyun, ‘Su Wan jiaotache lüxing zhi’, p. 64.
132 Ibid, p. 63.
133 See R. Mitter, The Manchurian Myth: Nationalism, Resistance and Collaboration in Modern China (Berkeley, LA and London, 2000), pp. 176–182.
134 Zhengzhang, ‘Yi jiu san qi nian de xinxing shiye’.
135 See Xibei daoyou (Shanghai, 1935), foreword.
136 See Bing Xin, Bing Xin youji (Shanghai, 1935), pp. 3–4.
137 See Zheng Bicheng (ed.), Sichuan daoyou (Shanghai, 1935), editor's preface, p. 1.
138 See Yajun Mo, Touring China, pp. 85–131, in particular p. 86.
139 Gu Zhizhong, Xi xing ji (Shanghai, 1932), p. 1.
140 Ibid, author's preface, p. 2.
141 Gu Zhizhong and Lu Yi, Dao Qinghai qu (Shanghai, 1934), author's preface 2, p. 2.
142 Wu Aichen, Xinjiang jiyou (Shanghai, 1935), Zhang ‘s preface, pp. 5–6.
143 Yuxin Ma, Women Journalists and Feminism in China, 1898–1937 (Amherst, 2010), p. 303.
144 Lin Pengxia, Xibei xing, 1936, author's preface 1, pp. 1–5.
145 Zhongguo youji xuan (Shanghai, 1936), editor's introductory remarks, p. 2.
146 Zhihong Chen, ‘The frontier crisis and the construction of modern Chinese geography in Republican China (1911–1949)’, Asian Geographer 33.2 (2016), pp. 142–147.
147 Jubin Hu, Projecting a Nation: Chinese National Cinema Before 1949 (Hong Kong, 2003), pp. 75–82; and Yingjin Zhang, Chinese National Cinema (New York and London, 2004), pp. 63, 67, 79–81.
148 C. Rea, Chinese Film Classics, 1922–1949 (New York, 2021), p. 102.
149 Sun Peigan, ‘Tan zhanshi youlan shiye’, Lüxing zazhi 15.7 (1941), pp. 91–94.
150 She Guitang, ‘Zhongguo youlan shiye zhi huigu’, Lüxing zazhi 17.7 (31 July 1943), p. 5.
151 Zhu Liren, ‘Zhan hou Zhongguo youlan jihua’, p. 4.
152 Fang Zhichao, ‘Lüxing yu xueye’, Lüxing yuekan 5.7 (1930), p. 1.
153 See Shen Xingchu, ‘Qing liewei tichang lüxing aihu lüxingtuan bing qing haishang lüxing—dao Putuo qu’, in ‘Dao Putuo qu!’, Yousheng lüxingtuan, undated, after 1934, brochure, p. 11.
154 Zhao Junhao, ‘Lüxing jiangzuo: Chen Guangfu xiansheng fangwen ji’, p. 84.
155 Sun Silin, ‘Meiguoren de lüxing re’, Lüxing zazhi 10.8 (1936), p. 85.
156 Sun Peigan, ‘Ou Mei lüxing tan pian’, Lüxing zazhi 10.9 (1936), p. 100.
157 Cao Peiyan, ‘Lüxing yu xin shenghuo’, Xin shenghuo 37 (30 May 1920), p. 5.
158 Xiao youji (Shanghai, 1932), preface, p. 1.
159 Chen Duo, Zhener lüxing ji (Shanghai, 1934), p. 2.
160 Rao Guiju, Liu sheng jiyou (Nanchang, 1935), foreword, pp. 1–2.
161 Zhuang Yu, Wo yi youji, prologue, p. 2.
162 Wang Yulin, Fangshan youji huibian (Beiping, 1937), preface, p. 1.
163 Lüxing congzai, p. 85.
164 Tu Zheyin, ‘Cong Shanghai dao Ha'erbin’, Lüxing zazhi 2 (Spring 1928), p. 15.
165 Shao Xunmei, ‘Guanyu lüxing’, Shidai manhua 14 (20 February 1935), n.p.
166 ‘Tan lüxing’, Jiating yu funü 2.5 (1940), p. 118.
167 ‘Yao ban yi ge lüxingtuan’, Molifeng 2.11 (1947), p. 17.
168 Lin Yun, ‘Lüxing de guanjian’, Funü 2.1 (1947), p. 19.
169 Yu Dafu, Yu Dafu sanwen ji, pp. 151–152.
170 Yu Dafu, Sanwen ji, Jihen chuchu. Zizhuan (Shanghai, 2002), preface, p. 1.
171 Ibid, pp. 1–2.
172 Wu Xiaodong has seen in this invitation involving the use of travel writing for tourism advertising a visionary move by the railway: Wu Xiaodong, ‘Yu Dafu yu Zhongguo xiandai fengjing de faxian’, Zhongguo xiandai wenxue yanjiu congkan (October 2012), p. 1.
173 Yu Dafu, Sanwen ji, p. 8.
174 Ibid, p. 203.
175 Li Xiangxiang, ‘Lun Yu Dafu de lüyou guan’, Zhejiang shifan daxue xuebao 28.3 (2003), p. 37.
176 Ba Jin, Lütu suibi (Shanghai, 1934), preface.
177 Jiang Zuyao, ‘Xihu xiao zhu ji’, in Hu shang, (ed.) Zhou Shoujuan (Shanghai, 1929), p. 77.
178 He Boxin, Ba sheng lüxing jianwen lu (Chongqing, 1935), author's preface, pp. 5–6.
179 Zhao Junhao, Nan you shi ji (Shanghai, 1936), pp. 11–17.
180 Shu Xincheng (ed.), Shu you xinying (Shanghai, 1934), preface, p. 1.
181 Ibid, p. 1.
182 Ibid, preface, p. 2.
183 Zhao Junhao, ‘Lüxing jiangzuo: Xu Jingren xiansheng fangwen ji’, Lüxing zazhi 9.4 (1935), p. 55.
184 On this phenomenon between 1880 and 1940, see M. S. Shaffer, See America First: Tourism and National Identity, 1880–1940 (Washington and London, 2001), p. 4.
185 Chen Guangfu, ‘You Xiang sheng gonglu ji Nanyue ji’, in Dangdai youji xuan (Shanghai, 1935), pp. 86–87.
186 Huang Boqiao, ‘Daoyou yu aiguo’, p. 3.
187 Tang Weibin, ‘Zhongguo lüxing shiye de zhanwang’, Lüxing zazhi 18.2 (1944), p. 5.
188 Tang Weibin, ‘Zhong lü ershisan nian’, p. 91.
189 See Gerth, China Made, pp. 3–4.
190 See A. D. Morris, Marrow of the Nation: A History of Sport and Physical Culture in Republican China (Berkeley, LA and London, 2004), p. 3.
191 See F. Dikötter, Sex, Culture and Modernity in China (London, 1995), pp. 1–2.
192 See A. D. Smith, Nationalism (Cambridge, 2010), pp. 6–7.
193 Gu Huiyun, ‘Su Wan jiaotache lüxing zhi’, p. 72.
194 O. Löfgren, ‘Know your country: a comparative perspective on tourism and nation building in Sweden’, in Being Elsewhere: Tourism, Consumer Culture, and Identity in Modern Europe and North America, (eds.) S. Baranowski and E. Furlough (Ann Arbor, 2001), p. 143.
195 P. Young, ‘A place like any other? Publicity, hotels and the search for a French path to tourism’, in Touring Beyond the Nation: A Transnational Approach to European Tourism History, (ed.) E. G. E. Zuelow (Farnham and Burlington, VT, 2011), pp. 129–130.
196 A. Vari, ‘From friends of nature to tourist-soldiers: nation building and tourism in Hungary, 1873–1914’, in Turizm, (eds.) Gorsuch and Koenker, pp. 68–71.
197 Young, ‘Place like any other?’, pp. 130–131.
198 Shaffer, See America First, pp. 3–5.
199 Vari, ‘From friends of nature’, pp. 74–75.
200 Shaffer, See America First, pp. 26, 93–94; and M. S. Shaffer, ‘Seeing the nature of America: the national parks as national assets, 1914–1929’, in Being Elsewhere, (eds.) Baranowski and Furlough, p. 155.
201 K. Semmens, ‘“Travel in merry Germany”: tourism in the Third Reich’, in Histories of Tourism: Representation, Identity and Conflict, (ed.) J. K. Walton (Clevedon, Buffalo, and Toronto, 2005), p. 146; and S. Baranowski, ‘Radical nationalism in an international context: strength through joy and the paradoxes of Nazi tourism’, in Histories of Tourism, (ed.) Walton, pp. 133–134; S. Baranowski, Strength through Joy: Consumerism and Mass Tourism in the Third Reich (Cambridge, 2004), p. 5; and S. Baranowski and E. Furlough, ‘Strength through joy: tourism and national integration in the Third Reich’, in Being Elsewhere, (eds.) Baranowski and Furlough, pp. 213–229.
202 V. de Grazia, The Culture of Consent: Mass Organization of Leisure in Fascist Italy (Cambridge, 2002), p. 183.
203 E. Afinoguénova, ‘An organic nation: state-run tourism, regionalism, and food in Spain, 1905–1931’, The Journal of Modern History 86.4 (2014), pp. 743–779.
204 N. Neatby, From Old Quebec to La Belle Province: Tourism Promotion, Travel Writing, and National Identities, 1920–1967 (Montreal and Kingston, London, and Chicago, 2018), p. 38.
205 Ruoff, Imperial Japan at Its Zenith, pp. 83–84.
206 S. D. Pack, Tourism and Dictatorship: Europe's Peaceful Invasion of Franco's Spain (New York, 2006), p. 33.
207 Semmens, ‘Travel in merry Germany’, pp. 145–146.
208 Kushner, The Thought War, pp. 34–35, 39. On the efficacy of tourism in incorporating travellers into a Japanese nationalist vision of the Second Sino-Japanese War, see A. Elliott, ‘“Orient calls”: anglophone travel writing and tourism as propaganda during the Second Sino-Japanese War, 1937–1941’, Japan Review 33, Special Issue: War, Tourism, and Modern Japan (2019), pp. 117–142.
209 Vari, ‘From friends of nature’, pp. 76–79.
210 M. V. Sokolova, Istorija turizma (Moscow, 2004), p. 287.
211 Semmens, Seeing Hitler's Germany, pp. 11–12; and Semmens, ‘Travel in merry Germany’, p. 145.
212 D. Leheny, ‘“By other means”: tourism and leisure as politics in pre-War Japan’, Social Science Japan Journal 3.2 (2000), pp. 183–184; and D. Leheny, The Rules of Play: National Identity and the Shaping of Japanese Leisure (Ithaca and London, 2003), pp. 67–68.
213 See F. Dikötter, The Age of Openness: China before Mao (Hong Kong, 2010), pp. 2–3, 31–80.
214 Sun Wen, Sanminzhuyi (Taibei, 2003), lecture delivered on 27 January 1924, p. 2.