^{page 43 note 1} The versions are those of Griffith with occasional emendation (Hymns of the Ṛg Veda, 2 vols., Benares, 1896–1897Google Scholar).

^{page 43 note 2} ṚV, I, 91, 20, sādanydṃ vidathyàṃ sabhéyam pitṛ-śrávaṇaṃ yó dádāśad asmai.

^{page 43 note 3} Ibid., 167, 2.

^{page 43 note 4} Ibid., 167, 3, gúhā cárantī mánuṣo ná yóṣā sabhāvatī vidathyèva sáṃ vāk.

^{page 43 note 5} Ibid., 167, 6, āsthāpayanta yuvatíṃ yúvānaḥ śubhé nímiślāṃ vidátheṣu pajrām/arkó yád vo maruto havíṣmān gāyad gāthāṃ sutá-somo duvasyán.

^{page 43 note 6} Ibid., II, 24, 16, víśvaṃ tád bhadráṃ yád ávanti devā bṛhád vadema vidáthe suvīrāḥ; (the sabhā occurs in verse 13); AV, XVIII, 3, 25.

^{page 44 note 1} Ibid., X, 11, 3, yád īm uśántam uśatām ánu krátum agníṃ hótāraṃ vidáthāya jījanan. The sámiti occurs in verse 8, yád agna eṣā sámitir bhávāti; cf. AV, XVIII, 1, 20.

^{page 44 note 2} Ibid., 85, 26, gṛhān gaccha gṛhápatnī yáthāṣo vaśínī tváṃ vidátham ā vadāsi; cf. AV, XIV, 1, 20.

^{page 44 note 3} Ibid., 85, 27, enā pátyā tanvàṃ sáṃ sṛjasvādhā jívrī vidátham ā vadāthaḥ; cf. AV, XIV, 1, 21.

^{page 44 note 4} Ibid., III, 26, 6, vrātaṃ-vrātaṛ gaṇám-gaṇaṃ suśastibhir agnér bhāmam marútām ója īmahe pŕṣadaśvāso anavabhrá-rādhaso gántāro yajĩáṃ vidátheṣu dhīrāḥ.

^{page 44 note 5} Ibid., 14, 1, ā hótā mandró vidáthāny asthāt satyó yájvā kavítamaḥ sá vedhāḥ.

^{page 44 note 6} Ibid., II, 1, 4, tvám agne rājá váruṇo dhṛrtá-vratas…tvám áṃśo vidáthe deva bhājayúḥ.

^{page 44 note 7} Ibid., VI, 8, pṛkṣásya vŕṣṇo aruṣásya nū sáhaḥ prá nú vocaṃ vidáthā jātávedasaḥ.

^{page 44 note 8} Ibid., II, 1, 16, bṛhád vadema vidáthe suvīrāḥ; 23 hymns in this maṇḍala conclude with this pāda.

^{page 45 note 1} Ibid., IV, 21, 2, yásya krátur vidathyò ná samrāt sāhvān tárutro abhy ásti kṛṣṭīḥ.

^{page 45 note 2} Ibid., X, 91, 8, medhākāráṃ vidáthasya prasādhanam agniṃ hótāraṃ paribhūtamam matím.

^{page 45 note 3} Ibid., 91, 9, tvām íd átra vṛṇate tvāyávo hótāram agne vidátheṣu vedhásaḥ.

^{page 45 note 4} Ibid., VIII, 39, 1, agnír devāṁ anaktu na ubhé hi vidáthe kavir antáś cárati dūtyàṃ nábhantām anyaké same.

^{page 45 note 5} Ibid., VII, 57, 2, asmākam adyá vidátheṣu barhír ā vītáye sadata pipriyānāḥ.

^{page 45 note 6} Ibid., IX, 97, 56, sómo víśvasya bhúvanasya rājā drapsāā īráyan vidátheṣv induḥ.

^{page 45 note 7} Ibid., V, 29, 13, yā co nú návyā kṛṇávaḥ śaviṣṭha préd u tā te vidātheṣu bravāma.

^{page 45 note 8} Ibid., I, 60, 1, váhniṃ yaśásaṃ vidáthasya ketúṃ suprāvyāṃ dūtáṃ sadyó-artham; cf. ṚV, III, 3, 3.

^{page 45 note 9} Ibid., 162, 1, yád vājíno devá-jātasya sápteḥ pravakṣyāmo vidáthe vīryāṇi.

^{page 46 note 1} Ibid., II, 4, 8, nū te pūrvasyāvaso ádhītau tṛtīye vidáthe mánnta śaṃsi.

^{page 46 note 2} Ibid., III, 54, 11, híraṇya-pāṇiḥ savitā sujihvás trir ā divó vidáthe pátyamānaḥ.

^{page 46 note 3} Ibid., 56, 5, trī ṣadhásthā sindhavas tríḥ kavīnām utá trimātā vidátheṣu samrāṭ/ṛtāvarīr yóṣaṇas tisró ápyās trír ā divó vidáthe pátyamānāḥ; see also verse 8.

^{page 46 note 4} Ibid., X, 12, 7, yástnin devā vidáthe mādáyante vivásvataḥ sádane dhāráyante; AV, XVIII, 1, 35.

^{page 46 note 5} Ibid., 96, 1, prá te mahé vidáthe śaṃsiṣaṃ hárī prá te vanve vanúṣo haryatáṃ mádam; AV, XX, 30, 1.

^{page 46 note 6} Ibid., 100, 6, yajĩáś ca bhūd vidáthe cārur ántama ā sarvátātim áditiṃ vṛṇīmahe.

^{page 46 note 7} Ibid., V, 63, 2, samrājāv asyá bhúvanasya rājatho mítrā-varuṇā vidáthe svar-dŕśā.

^{page 46 note 8} Ibid., III, 1, 2, diváḥ śaśāsur vidáthā kavīnāṃ gŕtsāya cit taváse gātúm īṣuḥ; cf. Sāyaṇa and Ludwig's comments.

^{page 46 note 9} Ibid., 1, 18, ní duroṇé amŕto mártyānāṃ rājā sasāda vidáthāni sādhan.

^{page 47 note 1} Ibid., III, 27, 7, hótā devó ámartyaḥ purástād eti māyáyā vidáthāni pracodáyan.

^{page 47 note 2} Ibid., I, 92, 5, svárurṃ ná péśo vidátheṣv aĩjáĩ citráṃ divó duhitā bhānúm aśret.

^{page 47 note 3} Ibid., VII, 36, 8, prá vo mahīm arámatiṃ kṛṇudhvaṃ prá pūṣáṇaC vidathyàṃ ná vīrám; Sāyaṇa takes mahīm arámatim as “the never-resting Earth”; cf. Muir, , O.S. Texts, IV, p. 317Google Scholar; Griffith, , Hymns of the ṚV, II, p. 21, n. 8Google Scholar.

^{page 47 note 4} Ibid., VI, 8, 5, yugé-yuge vidathyàṃ gṛṇádbhyó 'gne rayíṃ yaśásaṃ dhehi návyasīm.

^{page 47 note 5} Ibid., VII, 43, 3, ā viśvācī vidathyàm anaktv ágne mā no devátātā mŕdhas kaḥ.

^{page 47 note 6} AV, I, 13, 4, sā no mṛḍa vidáthe gṛṇānā tásyai te námo astu devi. The versions are those of Bloomfield with occasional alterations. The texts is from S. D. Satavalekar's edition, 3rd impression, Pardi, 1957.

^{page 47 note 7} Ibid., XVIII, 3, 19, té arvāṇaḥ kavaya ā śṛṇota suvidátrā vidáthe hūyámānāḥ.

^{page 47 note 8} Ibid., XII, 2, 30, āsīnā mṛtyúṃ nudatā sadhásthé 'tha jīvāso vidátham ā vadema.

^{page 47 note 9} Ibid., XVII, 1,15, tváṃ tṛtáṃ tváṃ páryeṣy útsaṃ sahásra-dhāraṃ vidáthaṃ svar-vídaṃ táved viṣṇo bahudhā vīryāṇi.

^{page 48 note 1} Cf. M. Williams, Sanskrit-English Dictionary, s.v. gharma.

^{page 48 note 2} AV, VII, 73, 4, mādhvī dhartārā vidathasya satpatī taptáṃ gharmáṃ pibantaṃ rocané diváḥ.

^{page 48 note 3} Ibid., IX, 9, 22, yátrā suparṇā amŕtasya bhakṣám ánimeṣaṃ vidáthābhāsváranti.

^{page 48 note 4} Ibid., V, 12, 7, daívyā hótārā prathamā suvācā mímānā yajāáṃ mánuṣo yájadhyai/pracodáyantā vidátheṣu kārū prācīnaṃ jyótiḥ pradíśā diśántā.

^{page 48 note 5} R. Roth, Skt.-Wört., St. Petersburg, s.v. vidátha, based on ṚV, I, 31, 6; 117, 25; III, 1, 18; AV, IV, 25, 1; V, 20, 12; ṚV, II, 1, 4; III, 38, 5–6; I, 166, 2; V., 59, 2, etc.

^{page 48 note 6} For further details see our interpretation below, p. 49 ff.

^{page 48 note 7} Sacred Books of the East, V, 46, p. 26 ff.; cf. Macdonell, , Vedic Grammar, p. 23, n. 10Google Scholar.

^{page 48 note 8} ṚV, X, 11, 3; I, 60, 1; X, 92, 2; 91, 8; V. 33, 9; III, 38, 5; etc.; cf. below, p. 52 ff.

^{page 48 note 9} AV, VII, 77, 4; XVIII, 1, 20; XX, 30, 1; etc.; cf. below.

^{page 48 note 10} Tr. of the Ṛg Veda, III, p. 259 ff.

^{page 48 note 11} AV, IX, 14,22.

^{page 48 note 12} Vedische Studien, I, p. 147; ṚV Glossen, p. 161.

^{page 48 note 13} JAOS., XIX, 25, p. 12 ff.

^{page 48 note 14} Vedic Index, London, 1912, II, pp. 296–7Google Scholar.

^{page 49 note 1} M. Williams, op. cit., s.v. vid and vidatha.

^{page 49 note 2} Altindisches Leben, Berlin, 1879, p. 177Google Scholar.

^{page 49 note 3} Vedic Index, II, p. 297.

^{page 49 note 4} Hindu Polity, 3rd Edn., Bangalore, 1954, p. 20Google Scholar. Based on Roth and ṚV, III, 38, 5; II, 1, 4; III, 1, 4.

^{page 49 note 5} For further discussion see below, p. 10 ff.

^{page 49 note 6} Cf. Thieme, P., Untersuchungen zur Wortkunde und Auslegung des Rigveda, Vidatha, Haale/Saale, 1949, pp. 35–7Google Scholar.

^{page 49 note 7} Ibid., pp. 37–49.

^{page 49 note 8} Cf. below, p. 53 ff.

^{page 49 note 9} State and Government, in Ancient India, 3rd edn., Patna, 1958, p. 141Google Scholar.

^{page 49 note 10} Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions, Patna, 1959, pp. 63–80Google Scholar; JBRS., 1952, p. 429 ff.

^{page 49 note 11} Ibid., p. 79; cf. ProfMukerji, K. P., Ancient Political Experiences, Colombo, 1961, pp. 85–6Google Scholar.

^{page 50 note 1} Ibid., p. 64.

^{page 50 note 2} Ibid., p. 73.

^{page 50 note 3} Harvey, , The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature, Oxford, 1937, p. 117 ff.Google Scholar

^{page 50 note 4} Ibid., p. 118.

^{page 50 note 5} Op. cit., p. 65; cites Engels, F., Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State, p. 126Google Scholar, as basis.

^{page 50 note 6} Ibid., pp. 65–6.

^{page 50 note 7} Ibid., p. 66; Engels, op. cit., p. 188.

^{page 50 note 8} We believe that Sharma is wrong, at least in the case of the early Germans who “conceived that in woman was a certain uncanny and prophetic sense; they neither scorned to consult them nor slighted their answers”; cf. Tacitus, , De Germania, Loeb Classical Library, London, 1932, p. 277Google Scholar.

^{page 51 note 1} Op. cit., p. 66.

^{page 51 note 2} Ibid., p. 67.

^{page 51 note 3} Ibid., p. 66, ṚV, III, 26, 6, vrātaṃ-vrātaṃ gaṇáṃ-gaṇaṃ suśastíbhir agnér bhāmam marútām ója imahe/pŕṣad-aśvāso anavabhrá-rādhaso gántāro yajĩáṃ vidátheṣu vīrāḥ. Cf. gaṇáḥ in M. Williams, Sanskrit-English Dictionary; St. Petersburg Wörterbuch; M. Mayrliofer, Etymological Dictionary, s.v. gaṃáḥ, Schar, Reihe, Menge.

^{page 51 note 4} Ibid., p. 67.

^{page 51 note 5} Harvey, op. cit., p. 117; cf. Heitland, , The Roman Republic, Cambridge, 1909, I, p. 40 ffGoogle Scholar.

^{page 51 note 6} Greenidge, A. H. J., A Handbook of Greek Constitutional History, London, 1896, p. 211 ffGoogle Scholar; Whibley, L., Greek Oligarchies, their Character and Organization, London, 1896, p. 165 ff.Google Scholar; Plato, The Apology.

^{page 51 note 7} Tacitus, , De Germania, p. 277 ff.Google Scholar

^{page 51 note 8} Cf. Chambers' Encyclopaedia; Encyclopaedia Britannica, s.v., Iceland; Peaslee, A. J., Constitutions of Nations, II, pp. 179–88Google Scholar.

^{page 52 note 1} Op cit., p. 67.

^{page 52 note 2} Sacred Books of the East, XLVI, p. 26.

^{page 52 note 3} ṚV, VII, 40, 1.

^{page 52 note 4} Op. cit., pp. 67–8.

^{page 52 note 5} Cf. ṚV, X, 11, 8.

^{page 52 note 6} Op. cit., p. 69.

^{page 52 note 7} A. S. Altekar, op. cit., p. 141, n. 1.

^{page 52 note 8} ṚV, II, 1, 16.

^{page 52 note 9} Griffith translates it as “with brave men in the assembly may we speak aloud”.

^{page 52 note 10} His translation of ṚV, II, 1, 16.

^{page 52 note 11} ṚV, II, 1, 16; 2, 13; 11, 21; 12, 15; 13, 15; 14, 12; 15, 10; 16, 9; 17, 9; 18, 9; 19, 9; 20, 9; 23, 19; 24, 16; 27, 17; 28, 11; 29, 7; 33, 15; 39, 8; also I, 117, 25. Sharma pointed only 21 such verses.

^{page 52 note 12} ṚV, III, 30–2; 34–6, 38, 39, 43, 48–50 (hymn nos.).

^{page 52 note 13} Ibid., IV, hymns 16, 17, 19–24.

^{page 53 note 1} Ibid., VII, hymns 1, 3, 4, 7–9, 11–14, 19–30, 34–7, 39–43, 45–8, 51, 53–4, 56–8, 60–5, 67–73, 75–80, 84–8, 90–3, 95, 97–101.

^{page 53 note 2} Op. cit., pp. 79–80.

^{page 53 note 3} Sharma, op. cit., p. 77.

^{page 53 note 4} Ibid., p. 66; based on ṚV, III, 26, 6.

^{page 53 note 5} Ibid., p. 82; Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, II, 5, 1, 12; Tāṇḍya Mahābrāhmaṇa, XIX, 14, 2.

^{page 54 note 1} ṚV, 1, 91, 20; 167, 3.

^{page 54 note 2} Ibid., II, 24, 13 (sabhā), 16 (vidáthe). The order of the words is also significant; sādanyàm—belongs to the house; sabhéyam to the “tribal council”; vidathyàm occurring between them must refer to a village or settlement, as the Vedic society had no other territorial divisions.

^{page 54 note 3} Ibid., X, 11, 3 (vidátha), 8 (sámiti).

^{page 54 note 4} AV, XVIII, 1, 15.

^{page 54 note 5} ṚV, X, 85, 26, 27; I, 12, 7; X, 100, 6; III, 1, 18; AV, XVIII, 1, 20, 21, etc.

^{page 54 note 6} ṚV, X, 11, 3; 91, 8; 97, 56; I, 60, 1; X, 96, 1; III, 1, 18; 1, 92, 5; AV, XVIII, I, 20; 3, 19; XVII, 1, 15; VII, 77, 4; etc.

^{page 54 note 7} ṚV, I, 92, 5; II, 4, 8; III, 1, 2; 54, 11; 56, 5; X, 11, 3; AV, V. 12, 7; VIII, 77, 4.

^{page 55 note 1} ṚV, X, 91, 8; III, 1, 18.

^{page 55 note 2} ṚV, X, 85, 26; AV, III, 77, 4.

^{page 55 note 3} ṚV, IX, 9, 22.

^{page 55 note 4} ṚV, I, 91, 20; 167, 3; III, 54, 1; IV, 21, 2; VI, 8, 5; VII, 36, 8; 40, 1; 43, 3; X, 41, 1, etc.

^{page 55 note 5} Ibid., II, 39, 1, brahmāṇeva vidátha uktha-śāsā.

^{page 55 note 6} Ibid., VIII, 39, 1; AV, XVII, 3, 19.

^{page 55 note 7} Päṇini, VI, 4, 165.

^{page 55 note 8} Sāyaṇa on ṚV, V, 33, 9.

^{page 55 note 9} Cf. M. Williams, op. cit., s.v., vidátha.

^{page 55 note 10} ṚV, I, 91,20; 162, 1; 167, 3, 6; II, 1, 4, 16; 24,16; III, 1, 2; 14, 1; 26, 6; 27, 7; 54, 11; 56, 5; IV, 21, 1, 2; V, 29, 13; 63, 2; VI, 81, 5; VII, 36, 8; 43, 3; 57, 2; VIII, 39, 1; X, 85, 27; 91, 9; 100, 6, etc.; AV, 1, 13, 4; V, 12, 7; XII, 2, 30, etc.

^{page 55 note 11} ṚV, X, 85, 26, 27; AV, XIV, 1, 20, 21.

^{page 56 note 1} Ghoshal, U. N., History of Indian Political Ideas, Oxford, 1959Google Scholar; Majumdar, , Corporate Life in Ancient India, 2nd Edn.Calcutta, 1924Google Scholar; Sastri, Shama, Evolution of Indian Polity, Calcutta, 1920Google Scholar; Munshi, K. M., ed. History and Culture of the Indian People, I, London, 1951 ff.Google Scholar.

^{page 56 note 2} Jayaswal, , Hindu Polity, p. 20Google Scholar; Altekar, , State and Government, p. 141Google Scholar; Ghoshal, , History of Hindu Public Life, Calcutta, 1945, pt. I, p. 28Google Scholar; R. S. Sharma, op. cit., p. 63 ff (gives a fuller treatment); K. P. Mukerji, op. cit., pp. 85, 86.