Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-tf8b9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-29T14:17:47.295Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Direct Sea Trade Between Early Islamic Iraq and Tang China: from the Exchange of Goods to the Transmission of Ideas

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 July 2015

ALAIN GEORGE
ALAIN GEORGE*
Affiliation:
University of [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article is a historical study of maritime trade between Tang China and early Islamic Iraq, in the seventh to tenth centuries. While the existence, in this period, of merchant communities from the Arab-Persian Gulf in Chinese ports has been known for a long time, the present study seeks to contextualise their emergence, to articulate the socio-economic conditions of their trade, and to consider the extent to which these were conducive to transmissions of ideas. Building upon scholarly findings accumulated in different disciplines, it outlines patterns of exchange that, while limited in scope, were more systemic than has hitherto been assumed.

Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society , Volume 25 , Issue 4 , October 2015 , pp. 579 - 624
Copyright
Copyright © The Royal Asiatic Society 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abraham, Meera. Two Medieval Merchant Guilds of South India. New Delhi, Manohar, 1988.Google Scholar
Abramson, Marc Samuel. Ethnic Identity in Tang China. Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008.Google Scholar
Adshead, Samuel Adrian M. T’ang China. The Rise of the East in World History. New York, Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.Google Scholar
Agius, Dionisius A. Classic Ships of Islam. From Mesopotamia to the Indian Ocean. Leiden, Brill, 2008.Google Scholar
Ahmad, S. Maqbul. Arabic Classical Accounts of India and China. Shimla, Indian Institute of Advanced Study in association with Ṛddhi-India, Calcutta, 1989.Google Scholar
Ahsan, Muhammad Manazir. Social Life Under the Abbasids, 178–289 AH/786–902 AD. London, New York, Longman, 1979.Google Scholar
Akin, Alexander. “The Jing Xing Ji of Du Huan: Notes on the West by a Chinese Prisoner of War”. Harvard Middle Eastern and Islamic Review 5 (2000): 77–102.Google Scholar
Baumer, Christoph. The Church of the East. An Illustrated History of Assyrian Christianity. London, I.B. Tauris, 2006.Google Scholar
Beckwith, Christopher. “The Plan of the City of Peace: Central Asian Iranian Factors in Early ‘Abbāsid Design”. Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 38 (1984): 128–147.Google Scholar
Beckwith, Christopher. The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia. A History of the Struggle for Great Power Among Tibetans, Turks, Arabs and Chinese During the Early Middle Ages. Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press, 1987.Google Scholar
Beckwith, Christopher. “The Tibetans in the Ordos and North China: Considerations on the Role of the Tibetan Empire in World History”. In The History of Tibet. Vol. I, The Early Period: To c. 850 AD, the Yarlung Dynasty, edited by McKay, Alex; 227–234. London, RoutledgeCurzon, 2003.Google Scholar
Benn, Charles. China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2002.Google Scholar
Beyhaqi (Bayhaqī), Abu’l Fażl. The History of Beyhaqi (the History of Sultan Masʻud of Ghazna, 1030–1041). Translated by Clifford Edmund Bosworth and Mohsen Ashtiany. 3 vols. Boston, MA and Washington, DC, Ilex Foundation and Center for Hellenic Studies Trustees for Harvard University, 2011.Google Scholar
Bielenstein, Hans. Diplomacy and Trade in the Chinese World, 589–1276. Leiden, Brill, 2005.Google Scholar
Biraben, Jean-Noël. “Essai sur l’évolution du nombre des hommes”. Population (French Edition) 34, no. 1 (1979): 13–25.Google Scholar
Bloom, Jonathan. Paper before Print. The History and Impact of Paper in the Islamic World. New Haven, Yale University Press, 2001.Google Scholar
Bosworth, Clifford Edmund. “An Alleged Embassy from the Emperor of China to the Amir Naṣr B. Aḥmad: a Contibution [sic] to Sāmānid Military History”. In Yâd-nâme-ye Îrânî-ye Minorsky, edited by Minovi, Mojtaba and Afshar, Iraj, 17–29. Tehran, 1969.Google Scholar
Bosworth, Clifford Edmund. The Laṭāʾif Al-maʿārif of Thaʿālibi. The Book of Curious and Entertaining Information, Translated with Introduction and Notes. Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press, 1968.Google Scholar
Boucher, Daniel. “Gāndhārī and the Early Chinese Buddhist Translations Reconsidered: The Case of the Saddharmapuṇḍarīkasūtra”. Journal of the American Oriental Society 118, no. 4 (1998): 471–506.Google Scholar
Brock, Sebastian. “The Syriac Background to Ḥunayn's Translation Techniques”. Aram 3 (1991): 139–162.Google Scholar
Carswell, John. “China and Islam: a Survey of the Coast of India and Ceylon”. Transactions of the Oriental Ceramic Society 42 (1977–1978): 25–45.Google Scholar
Carswell, John. “China and the Maldive Islands”. Transactions of the Oriental Ceramic Society 41 (1975–1977): 121–197.Google Scholar
Chavannes, Edouard. Documents sur les Tou-Kiue (Turcs) occidentaux. Paris, Librairie d’Amérique et d’Orient, 1903.Google Scholar
“Notes additionnelles sur les Tou-kiue (Turcs) occidentaux”. T’oung Pao 5, no. 1. Second Series (1904): 1–110.Google Scholar
Ming, Chen. “The Transmission of Foreign Medicine via the Silk Roads in Medieval China: A Case Study of Haiyao Bencao”. Asian Medicine 3, no. 2 (2007): 241–264.Google Scholar
Chin, James K. “Ports, Merchants, Chieftains and Eunuchs: Regarding Maritime Commerce of Early Guangdong”. In Guangdong. Archaeology and Early Texts = Archäologie und Frühe Texte (Zhou-Tang), edited by Müller, Shing, Höllmann, Thomas, and Gui, Putao, 217–239. Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz, 2004.Google Scholar
Clark, Hugh R. Community, Trade, and Networks: Southern Fujian Province from the Third to the Thirteenth. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1991.Google Scholar
Cuisance, Françoise. “Undoing Old and Doing New Conservation on Pelliot Chinois 2547 and 2490”. IDP News 33 (2009): 5–7.Google Scholar
Cutler, Anthony. “Gifts and Gift Exchange as Aspects of the Byzantine, Arab, and Related Economies”. Dumbarton Oaks Papers 55 (2001): 247–278.Google Scholar
Cutler, Anthony. “Significant Gifts: Patterns of Exchange in Late Antique, Byzantine, and Early Islamic Diplomacy”. Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies 38, no. 1 (2008): 79–101.Google Scholar
De Goeje, M.J., ed. Al-mujallad al-sābiʿ min kitāb al-aʿlāq al-nafīsa, taṣnīf abī ʿalī aḥmad ibn ʿumar ibn rusta [yalīhi] Kitāb al-buldān, taʾlīf al-yaʿqūbī. Leiden, 1892.Google Scholar
de la Vaissière, Étienne. Samarcande et Samarra. Elites d’Asie centrale dans l’empire abbasside. Paris, Association pour l’avancement des études iraniennes, 2007.Google Scholar
de la Vaissière, Étienne. Sogdian Traders: a History. Translated by James Ward. Leiden, Brill, 2005.Google Scholar
de la Vaissière, Etienne, and Trombert, Eric. “Des Chinois et des Hu: migrations et intégration des Iraniens orientaux en milieu chinois durant le Haut Moyen-Âge”. Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales 59è année, nos. 5–6 (2004): 931–969.Google Scholar
Déroche, François. Islamic Codicology. An Introduction to the Study of Manuscripts in Arabic Script. Translated by Deke Dusinberre and David Radzinowicz. London, Al-Furqan Islamic Heritage Foundation, 2005.Google Scholar
Drake, F. S. “Mohammedanism in the T’ang Dynasty”. Monumenta Serica 8 (1943): 1–40.Google Scholar
Drège, Jean Pierre. “Papillons et tourbillons”. In De Dunhuang au Japon. Etudes chinoises et bouddhiques offertes à Michel Soymié, edited by Drége, Jean-Pierre, 163–178. Geneva, Droz, 1996.Google Scholar
EI2. Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second Edition). Leiden, Brill, 1954–2005.Google Scholar
Ettinghausen, Richard. Arab Painting. 2nd ed. Lausanne, Skira, 1977.Google Scholar
al-Farazdaq, . Divan de Férazdak. Récits de Mohammed-ben-Habib d’après Ibn el-Arabi, publié sur le manuscrit de Sainte-Sophie de Constantinople. Edited and translated by Boucher, Richard. 4 vols. Paris, A. Labitte, 1870–1875.Google Scholar
Ferrand, Gabriel. Voyage du marchand arabe Sulaymân en Inde et en Chine, rédigé en 851, suivi de remarques par Abû Zayd Ḥasan (vers 916). Paris, Bossard, 1922.Google Scholar
Flecker, Michael. “A Ninth-century Arab Shipwreck in Indonesia: The First Archaeological Evidence of Direct Trade with China”. In Shipwrecked. Tang Treasures and Monsoon Winds, edited by Krahl, Regina, Guy, John, Wilson, J. Keith, and Raby, Julian, 101–119. Washington D.C. and Singapore, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, National Heritage Board, Singapore and Singapore Tourism Board, 2010.Google Scholar
Fowden, Garth. Quṣayr ʿAmra. Art and the Umayyad Elite in Late Antique Syria. Berkeley, CA, University of California Press, 2004.Google Scholar
Galen, . Jawāmiʿ al-iskandarānīyyīn. Edited by Sezgin, Fuat. 3 vols. Frankfurt, Maʿhad Tārīkh al-ʿUlūm al-ʿArabīyya wa’l-Islāmīyya fī Iṭār Jāmiʿat Frānkfūrt, 2001–2004.Google Scholar
George, Alain. “The Illustrations of the Maqamat and the Shadow Play”. Muqarnas XXVIII (2011): 1–41.Google Scholar
Gil, Moshe. “The Rādhānite Merchants and the Land of Rādhān”. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 17, no. 3 (1974): 299–328.Google Scholar
Gutas, Dimitri. Greek Thought, Arabic Culture. The Graeco-Arabic Translation Movement in Baghdad and Early ʿAbbāsid Society (2nd-4th/8th-10th Centuries). London, Routledge, 1998.Google Scholar
Guy, John. “Quanzhou: Cosmopolitan City of Faiths”. In The World of Khubilai Khan: Chinese Art in the Yuan Dynasty, edited by Y Watt, James C., 159–178. New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2010.Google Scholar
Guy, John. “Rare and Strange Goods: International Trade in Ninth-century Asia”. In Shipwrecked. Tang Treasures and Monsoon Winds, edited by Krahl, Regina, Guy, John, Wilson, J. Keith, and Raby, Julian, 19–27. Washington D.C. and Singapore, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, National Heritage Board, Singapore and Singapore Tourism Board, 2010.Google Scholar
Hallett, Jessica. “Pearl Cups Like the Moon: The Abbasid Reception of Chinese Ceramics”. In Shipwrecked. Tang Treasures and Monsoon Winds, edited by Krahl, Regina, Guy, John, Wilson, J. Keith, and Raby, Julian: 75–81. Washington D.C. and Singapore, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, National Heritage Board, Singapore and Singapore Tourism Board, 2010.Google Scholar
Hallett, Jessica. “Trade and Innovation: the Rise of a Pottery Industry in Abbasid Basra”. Unpublished D.Phil. thesis, University of Oxford, 1999.Google Scholar
Hillenbrand, Robert. Islamic Architecture: Form, Function and Meaning. Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press, 1994.Google Scholar
Ho, Chiumei. “Turquoise Jars and Other West Asian Ceramics in China”. Bulletin of the Asia Institute N.S. 9 (1995): 19–39.Google Scholar
Ho Peng, Yoke. Explorations in Daoism. Medicine and Alchemy in Literature. Edited by Moffett, John P. and Sungwu, Chu. London, Routledge, 2007.Google Scholar
Hobson, . “The Significance of Samarra”. Transactions of the Oriental Ceramic Society (1922–1923): 29–32.Google Scholar
Horton, Mark. Shanga. The Archaeology of a Muslim Trading Community on the Coast of East Africa. London, British Institute in Eastern Africa, 1996.Google Scholar
Hourani, George. Arab Seafaring in the Indian Ocean in Ancient and Early Medieval Times. Revised and Expanded by John Carswell. Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, 1995.Google Scholar
Hsieh, Ming-liang. “The Navigational Route of the Belitung Wreck and the Late Tang Ceramic Trade”. In Shipwrecked. Tang Treasures and Monsoon Winds, edited by Krahl, Regina, Guy, John, Wilson, J. Keith, and Raby, Julian, 137–143. Washington D.C. and Singapore, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, National Heritage Board, Singapore and Singapore Tourism Board, 2010.Google Scholar
Hsieh, Ming-liang. “White Ware with Green Décor”. In Shipwrecked. Tang Treasures and Monsoon Winds, edited by Krahl, Regina, Guy, John, Wilson, J. Keith, and Raby, Julian, 161–175. Washington D.C. and Singapore, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, National Heritage Board, Singapore and Singapore Tourism Board, 2010.Google Scholar
Hunter, Erica. “The Church of the East in Central Asia”. Bulletin of the John Rylands Library 78, no. 3 (1996): 129–142.Google Scholar
I-Ching (Yijing). Mémoire composé à l’époque de la grande dynastie T’ang sur les religieux éminents qui allèrent chercher la loi dans les pays d’Occident. Translated by Edouard Chavannes. Paris, Ernest Leroux, 1894.Google Scholar
I-Tsing (Yijing). A Record of the Buddhist Religion as Practised in India and the Malay Archipelago (A.D. 671–695). Translated by Takakusu Junjirō. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1896.Google Scholar
Ibn al-Faqīh. Kitāb al-buldān. Edited by al- Hādī, Yūsuf. Beirut, ʻAlam al-kutub, 1996.Google Scholar
Ibn Khurdādhbih. Kitāb al-masālik wa’l-mamālik. Edited by De Goeje, M. J.. Bibliotheca geographorum arabicum VI. Leiden, 1889.Google Scholar
Iskandar, A.Z. “An attempted reconstruction of the late Alexandrian medical curriculum”. Medical History 20, no. 3 (1976): 235–258.Google Scholar
Jackson, Robert. “Sailing through Time: Jewel of Muscat”. Saudi Aramco World (June 2012): 24–33.Google Scholar
al-Jāḥiẓ. Al-ḥayawān. Edited by Hārūn, ʿAbd al-Salām. Cairo, 1938–1945.Google Scholar
Jiayao, An. “Dated Islamic Glass in China”, Bulletin of the Asia Institute N.S. 5 (1991): 123–138.Google Scholar
Johnson, Wallace Stephen. The T’ang Code. Vol. II, Specific Articles. Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, 1997.Google Scholar
Kennedy, Alan. “The Emperor's Treasure House: 7th and 8th Century Textiles in the Shosoin”. Hali Annual (Silk and Stone: The Art of Asia) 3 (1996): 146–159.Google Scholar
Kennedy, Hugh. “Military Pay and the Economy of the Early Islamic State”. Historical Research 75, no. 188 (2002): 155–169.Google Scholar
Kennedy, Hugh. “Feeding the Five Hundred Thousand: Cities and Agriculture in Early Islamic Mesopotamia”. Iraq 73 (2011): 177–199.Google Scholar
Kieschnick, John. The Impact of Buddhism on Chinese Material Culture. Princeton (NJ), Princeton University Press, 2003.Google Scholar
Klein-Franke, Felix, and Ming, Zhu. “How Galen's ‘Sixteen Books’ Came to China in the Tenth Century AD”. The American Journal of Chinese Medicine 33, no. 2 (2005): 339–342.Google Scholar
Krahl, Regina. “Chinese Ceramics in the Late Tang Dynasty”. In Shipwrecked. Tang Treasures and Monsoon Winds, edited by Krahl, Regina, Guy, John, Wilson, J. Keith, and Raby, Julian: 45–53. Washington D.C. and Singapore, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, National Heritage Board, Singapore and Singapore Tourism Board, 2010.Google Scholar
Krahl, Regina. “Green Wares of Southern China.” In Shipwrecked. Tang Treasures and Monsoon Winds, edited by Krahl, Regina, Guy, John, Wilson, J. Keith, and Raby, Julian, 185–199. Washington D.C. and Singapore, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, National Heritage Board, Singapore and Singapore Tourism Board, 2010.Google Scholar
Krahl, Regina. “Tang Blue-and-white.” In Shipwrecked. Tang Treasures and Monsoon Winds, edited by Krahl, Regina, Guy, John, Wilson, J. Keith, and Raby, Julian: 209–211. Washington D.C. and Singapore, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, National Heritage Board, Singapore and Singapore Tourism Board, 2010.Google Scholar
Krahl, Regina. “White Wares of Northern China.” In Shipwrecked. Tang Treasures and Monsoon Winds, edited by Krahl, Regina, Guy, John, Wilson, J. Keith, and Raby, Julian: 201–211. Washington D.C. and Singapore, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, National Heritage Board, Singapore and Singapore Tourism Board, 2010.Google Scholar
Krahl, Regina, Guy, John, Wilson, J. Keith, and Raby, Julian, Shipwrecked. Tang Treasures and Monsoon Winds. Washington D.C. and Singapore, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, National Heritage Board, Singapore and Singapore Tourism Board, 2010.Google Scholar
Kraus, Paul. Jābir Ibn Ḥayyān. Contribution à l’histoire des idées scientifiques dans l’Islam. Vol. II: Jābir et la science grecque. Cairo, Institut français d’archéologie orientale, 1942.Google Scholar
Kuwayama, S. “Dating Yaśovarman of Kanauj on the Basis of Huichao”. In Across the Hindukush of the First Millenium: 260–270, 280. Kyoto, Institute for Research in Humanities, Kyoto University, 2002.Google Scholar
Laing, Ellen Johnston. “A Report on Western Asian Glassware in the Far East”. Bulletin of the Asia Institute N.S. 5 (1991), 109–121.Google Scholar
Lane, Arthur, and Serjeant, R. B.. “Pottery and Glass Fragments from the Aden Littoral, with Historical Notes”. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (New Series) 80, no. 3–4 (1948): 108–133.Google Scholar
Lane, Edward William. Arabic-English Lexicon. 8 vols. London, Williams and Norgate, 1863.Google Scholar
Langlès, Louis Mathieu, and Reinaud, Joseph Toussaint, eds. Relation des voyages faits par les Arabes et les Persans dans l’Inde et à la Chine dans le XIè siècle de l’ère chrétienne. 2 vols. Paris, Imprimerie Royale, 1845.Google Scholar
Lassner, Jacob. The Shaping of ʿAbbasid Rule. Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, 1980.Google Scholar
Lassner, Jacob. The Topography of Baghdad in the Early Middle Ages. Detroit, Wayne State University Press, 1970.Google Scholar
Laufer, Berthold. Sino-Iranica. Chinese Contributions to the History of Civilization in Ancient Iran, with Special Reference to the History of Cultivated Plants and Products. Chicago, Field Museum of Natural History, 1919.Google Scholar
Leslie, Donald. Islam in Traditional China: a Short History to 1800. Canberra, Canberra College of Advanced Education, 1986.Google Scholar
Leslie, Donald. “Persian Temples in T’ang China”. Monumenta Serica 35 (1981–1983): 275–303.Google Scholar
Leslie, Donald. The Survival of the Chinese Jews: The Jewish Community of Kaifeng. Leiden, Brill, 1972.Google Scholar
Levey, Martin. “Medieval Arabic Toxicology: The Book on Poisons of Ibn Wahshīya and Its Relation to Early Indian and Greek Texts”. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 56, no. 7. New Series (1966): 1–130.Google Scholar
Levey, Martin. The Medical Formulary or Aqrābādhīn of al-Kindī. Translated with a Study of its Materia Medica. Madison, University of Wisconsin Press, 1966.Google Scholar
Lewicki, Tadeusz. “Les premiers commerçants arabes en Chine”. Rocznik Orientalistyczny 11 (1935): 173–186.Google Scholar
Lewis, Mark Edward. China's Cosmopolitan Empire. The Tang Dynasty. Cambridge, MA, Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2009.Google Scholar
Li Baoping, Chen Yuh-shiow, and Wood, Nigel. “Chemical Fingerprinting: Tracing the Origins of the Green-splashed White Ware”. In Shipwrecked. Tang Treasures and Monsoon Winds, edited by Krahl, Regina, Guy, John, Wilson, J. Keith, and Raby, Julian, 177–183. Washington D.C. and Singapore, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, National Heritage Board, Singapore and Singapore Tourism Board, 2010.Google Scholar
Lieu, Samuel. Manichaeism in the Later Roman Empire and Medieval China. A Historical Survey. Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1985.Google Scholar
Liu, Yang. “Tang Dynasty Changsha Ceramics”. In Shipwrecked. Tang Treasures and Monsoon Winds, edited by Krahl, Regina, Guy, John, Wilson, J. Keith, and Raby, Julian, 145–159. Washington D.C. and Singapore, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, National Heritage Board, Singapore and Singapore Tourism Board, 2010.Google Scholar
Louis, François. “Bronze Mirrors”. In Shipwrecked. Tang Treasures and Monsoon Winds, edited by Krahl, Regina, Guy, John, Wilson, J. Keith, and Raby, Julian, 213–219. Washington D.C. and Singapore, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, National Heritage Board, Singapore and Singapore Tourism Board, 2010.Google Scholar
Louis, François. “Metal Objects on the Belitung Shipwreck”. In Shipwrecked. Tang Treasures and Monsoon Winds, edited by Krahl, Regina, Guy, John, Wilson, J. Keith, and Raby, Julian: 85–91. Washington D.C. and Singapore, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, National Heritage Board, Singapore and Singapore Tourism Board, 2010.Google Scholar
Ludvik, Catherine. “A Harivaṃśa Hymn in Yijing's Chinese Translation of the Sutra of Golden Light”. Journal of the American Oriental Society 124, no. 4 (2004): 707–734.Google Scholar
Malekandathil, Pius. Maritime India. Trade, Religion and Polity in the Indian Ocean. Delhi, Primus Books, 2010.Google Scholar
al-Masʻūdī. Les prairies d’or. Edited by de Meynard, Charles Barbier and de Courteille, Abel Pavet. Paris, Imprimerie impériale, 1861–1877.Google Scholar
Mason, Isaac. “The Mohammedans of China: When and How They First Came”. Journal of the North-China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 60 (1929): 42–78.Google Scholar
Micheau, Françoise. “Baghdad in the Abbasid Era: a Cosmopolitan and Multi-confessional Capital”. In The City in the Islamic World. Vol. 2, edited by Jayyusi, Salma Khadra, Holod, Renata, Petruccioli, Attilio, and Raymond, Andre, 221–246. Leiden, Brill, 2008.Google Scholar
Miquel, André. La géographie humaine du monde musulman jusqu’au milieu du 11è siècle. 4 vols. Paris, 1967–1988.Google Scholar
Monnet, Nathalie. Chine, l’empire du trait. Calligraphies et dessins du Ve au XIXe siècle. Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France, 2004.Google Scholar
Moule, Arthur Christopher. Christians in China before the Year 1550. London, Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1930.Google Scholar
al-Nadīm. Kitāb al-fihrist. Edited by Tajaddud, Riḍā. Tehran, Maṭbaʿat Dānishgāh, 1971.Google Scholar
al-Nadīm. The Fihrist of al-Nadīm: a Tenth Century Survey of Muslim Culture. Translated by Bayard Dodge. New York, Columbia University Press, 1970.Google Scholar
Nakano Masaki. Shōsōin to jōdai kaika Asuka Nara no kaiga kōgei. Vol. 3. Tokyo, Kodansha, 1992.Google Scholar
Needham, Joseph. Science and Civilisation in China. Vol. I: Introductory Orientations. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1954.Google Scholar
Needham, Joseph, Ping-Yü, Ho, Gwei-Djen, Lu, and Sivin, Nathan. Science and Civilisation in China. Vol. V: Chemistry and Chemical Technology. Part 4: Spagyrical Discovery and Invention: Apparatus, Theories and Gifts. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1980.Google Scholar
Needham, Joseph, and Tsuen-Hsuin, Tsien. Science and Civilisation in China. Vol. V: Chemistry and Chemical Technology. Part 1: Paper and Printing. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1985.Google Scholar
Nelson, Sarah Milledge. The Archaeology of Korea. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1993.Google Scholar
Park, Hyunhee. Mapping the Chinese and Islamic Worlds. Cross-Cultural Exchange in Pre-Modern Asia. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Pellat, Charles. The Life and Works of Jāḥiẓ. Berkeley, CA, University of California Press, 1969.Google Scholar
Pelliot, Paul. “Des artisans chinois à la capitale abbasside en 751–762”. T’oung Pao 26, no. 2/3. Second Series (1928): 110–112.Google Scholar
Pelliot, Paul. “Deux itinéraires de Chine en Inde à la fin du VIIIè siècle”. Bulletin de l’Ecole Française de l’Extrême-Orient 4 (1904): 131–413.Google Scholar
Pelliot, Paul. L’inscription nestorienne de Si-ngan-fou. Edited by Forte, Antonino. Kyoto/Paris, Scuola di studi sull’Asia orientale/Collège de France, Institut des Hautes Etudes Chinoises, 1996.Google Scholar
Pinder-Wilson, Ralph. “Glass in Asia During the T’ang Period”. In Pottery and Metalwork in T’ang China, Their Chronology & External Relations: a Colloquy Held 29 June to 2 July 1970, edited by Watson, William, 62–71. London, Percival David Foundation of Chinese Art, 1971.Google Scholar
Plumer, James Marshall. “Certain Celadon Potsherds from Sāmarrā Traced to their Source”. Ars Islamica 4 (1937): 195–200.Google Scholar
Qaddūmī, Ghāda al-Ḥijjāwī al-. Book of Gifts and Rarities, Kitāb al-hadāya wa al-tuḥaf: Selections compiled in the fifteenth century from an eleventh-century manuscript on gifts and treasures. Harvard Middle Eastern monographs 29. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1996.Google Scholar
Qi Dongfang. “Gold and Silver Wares on the Belitung Shipwreck”. In Shipwrecked. Tang Treasures and Monsoon Winds, edited by Krahl, Regina, Guy, John, Wilson, J. Keith, and Raby, Julian: 221–227. Washington D.C. and Singapore, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, National Heritage Board, Singapore and Singapore Tourism Board, 2010.Google Scholar
Rao, Gopinatha. “Three Inscriptions of Sthanu Ravi”. Travancore Archaeological Series II (1916): 66–86.Google Scholar
Rastelli, Sabrina, ed. China at the Court of the Emperors: Unknown Masterpieces from Han Tradition to Tang Elegance (25–907). Milan, Skira, 2008.Google Scholar
Rawson, Jessica. “Central Asian Silver and Its Influence on Chinese Ceramics”. Bulletin of the Asia Institute N.S. 5 (1991): 139–151.Google Scholar
Reischauer, Edwin O. “Notes on T’ang Dynasty Sea Routes”. Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 5, no. 2 (1940): 142–164.Google Scholar
Rougeulle, Axelle. “Les importations de céramiques chinoises dans le golfe arabo-persique (VIIIè-IXè siècles)”. Archéologie Islamique 2 (1991): 5–44.Google Scholar
Rougeulle, Axelle. “Medieval Trade Networks in the Western Indian Ocean (8–14th Centuries): Some Reflections from the Distribution Pattern of Chinese Imports in the Islamic World”. In Tradition and Archaeology: Early Maritime Contacts in the Indian Ocean, edited by Ray, Himanshu Prabha and Salles, Jean-François, 159–180. 2nd ed. New Delhi, Manohar, 2012.Google Scholar
Rozman, Gilbert. Urban Networks in Ching China and Tokugawa Japan. Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, 1974.Google Scholar
Sarre, Friedrich Paul Theodor. Die Keramik von Samarra. von Samarra, Ausgrabungen Bd. 2. Berlin, D. Reimer, 1925.Google Scholar
Sauvaget, Jean. Relation de la Chine et de l’Inde, rédigée en 851 (Akhbār al-Ṣīn wa’l-Hind). Paris, Belles-Lettres, 1948.Google Scholar
Schafer, Edward H. “Iranian Merchants in T’ang Dynasty Tales”. In Semitic and Oriental Studies, II: 403–422, 1951.Google Scholar
Schafer, Edward H. The Golden Peaches of Samarkand. A Study of T’ang Exotics. Berkeley, University of California Press, 1963.Google Scholar
Schottenhammer, Angela. “Transfer of Xiangyao from Iran and Arabia into China: a Reinvestigation of Entries in the Youzang Zazu (863)”. In Aspects of the Maritime Silk Road. From the Persian Gulf to the East China Sea, edited by Kauz, Ralph, 117–152. Harrassowitz, 2010.Google Scholar
Schottenhammer, Angela, ed. The Emporium of the World. Maritime Quanzhou, 1000–1400. Leiden, Brill, 2001.Google Scholar
Sezgin, Fuat. Geschichte des arabischen Schrifttums. Leiden, Brill, 1967–1984.Google Scholar
Skaff, Jonathan Karam. “The Sogdian Trade Diaspora in East Turkestan During the Seventh and Eighth Centuries”. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 46, no. 4 (2003): 475–524.Google Scholar
So, Billy K. L. Prosperity, Region, and Institutions in Maritime China. The South Fukien Pattern, 946–1368. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 2000.Google Scholar
Somers, Robert. “The End of the T’ang”. In Cambridge History of China. Vol. 3, Sui and T’ang China, Part I, edited by Twitchett, Denis C. and Fairbank, John K.. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1979.Google Scholar
Steinhardt, Nancy Shatzman. “China's Earliest Mosques”. Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 67, no. 3 (2008): 330–361.Google Scholar
Stillman, Yedida. Arab Dress. A Short History from the Dawn of Islam to Modern Times. Edited by Stillman, Norman. 2nd ed. Leiden, Brill, 2003.Google Scholar
Sun Dazhang. Islamic Buildings. Translated by Zhong Guodong and Zhang Long. Ancient Chinese Architecture, Vol. 10. Vienna, Springer, 2003.Google Scholar
al-Ṭabarī. The History of al-Ṭabarī (Ta’rīkh Al-rusul Wa’l-mulūk). Vol. XII, The Battle of al-Qādisiyyah and the Conquest of Syria and Palestine. Translated by Yohanan Friedmann. Albany, State University of New York Press, 1992.Google Scholar
al-Ṭabarī. The History of al-Ṭabarī (Ta’rīkh Al-rusul Wa’l-mulūk). Vol. XXVIII, ʿAbbāsid Authority Affirmed. Translated by Jane Dammen McAuliffe. Albany, NY, State University of New York Press, 1995.Google Scholar
Takakusu Junjirō. “Le voyage de Kanshin en Orient (742–754), par Aomi-No Mabito Genkai (779)”. Bulletin de l’Ecole Française d’Extrême-Orient 28, no. 3 (1928): 441–472.Google Scholar
Tampoe, Moira. Maritime Trade Between China and the West: An Archaeological Study of the Ceramics from Siraf (Persian Gulf), 8th to 15th Centuries A.D. Oxford, B.A.R, 1989.Google Scholar
Tannous, Jack. “Syria Between Byzantium and Islam: Making Incommensurables Speak”. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Princeton University, 2010.Google Scholar
Thaʿālibī, ʻAbd al-Malik ibn Muḥammad. Laṭāʾif al-maʿārif. Edited by Ibyārī, Ibrāhīm and Sayrafī, Ḥasan Kāmil. [Cairo], Dār iḥyāʾ al-kutub al-ʿarabīyya, n.d.Google Scholar
Tibbetts, G. R. “Pre-Islamic Arabia and Southeast Asia”. Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society XXV, no. 3 (1956): 182–208.Google Scholar
Tibbetts, G. R.. A Study of the Arabic Texts Containing Material on South-East Asia. Leiden, Brill, 1979.Google Scholar
Tubach, Jürgen. “Die nestorianische Kirche in China”. Nubica et Aethiopica: Internationales Jahrbuch für koptische, meroitisch-nubische, äthiopische und verwandte Studien IV/V (1999): 61–193.Google Scholar
Twitchett, Denis Crispin. Financial Administration Under the T’ang Dynasty. 2nd ed. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1970.Google Scholar
Vainker, Shelagh. Chinese Pottery and Porcelain. From Prehistory to the Present. London, British Museum Press, 1991.Google Scholar
Vainker, Shelagh. Chinese Silk. A Cultural History. London, British Museum Press, 2004.Google Scholar
Vosmer, Tom. “The Jewel of Muscat: Reconstructing a Ninth-century Sewn-plank Boat”. In Shipwrecked. Tang Treasures and Monsoon Winds, edited by Krahl, Regina, Guy, John, Wilson, J. Keith, and Raby, Julian: 121–135. Washington D.C. and Singapore, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, National Heritage Board, Singapore and Singapore Tourism Board, 2010.Google Scholar
Waines, David. “The Third Century Internal Crisis of the Abbasids”. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 20, no. 3 (1977): 282–306.Google Scholar
Wang, Gungwu. “The Nanhai Trade: A Study of the Early History of Chinese Trade in the South China Sea”. Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society XXXI, no. 2 (1958): 1–135.Google Scholar
Watson, Andrew. Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1983.Google Scholar
Watson, Oliver. “Revisiting Samarra: The Rise of Islamic Glazed Pottery”. Beiträge zur Islamischen Kunst und Archäologie 4 (2014): 123–142.Google Scholar
Wendell, Charles. “Baghdād, Imago Mundi and Other Foundation Lore”. International Journal of Middle East Studies 2 (1971): 99–128.Google Scholar
Whitehouse, David. Siraf. History, Topography and Environment. Oxford, Oxbow, 2009.Google Scholar
Whitehouse, David, and Williamson, Andrew. “Sasanian Maritime Trade”. Iran 11 (1973): 29–49.Google Scholar
Wilson, J. Keith, and Flecker, Michael. “Dating the Belitung Shipwreck”. In Shipwrecked. Tang Treasures and Monsoon Winds, edited by Krahl, Regina, Wilson, J. Keith, Guy, John, and Raby, Julian: 35–37. Washington D.C. and Singapore, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, National Heritage Board, Singapore and Singapore Tourism Board, 2010.Google Scholar
Wink, André. Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World. Vol. I: Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam. Leiden, Brill, 2002.Google Scholar
Wood, N., Tite, M. S., Doherty, C., and Gilmore, B.. “A Technological Examination of Ninth–Tenth Century A.D. Abbasid Blue-and-White Ware from Iraq, and its Comparison with Eighth Century A.D. Chinese Blue-and-White Sancai Ware”. Archaeometry 49, no. 4 (2007): 665–684.Google Scholar
Wyatt, Don J. The Blacks of Premodern China. Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010.Google Scholar
Xiaowei, Luo. “China”. In The Mosque: History, Architectural Development and Regional Diversity, edited by Frishman, Martin and Khan, Hasan-Uddin, 208–223. London, Thames & Hudson, 1994.Google Scholar
Xiong, Victor Cunrui. Sui-Tang Chang’an: A Study in the Urban History of Medieval China. Ann Arbor, Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan, 2000.Google Scholar
Yan, Zhitui. Family Instructions for the Yen Clan. Yen-shih Chia-hsün. Translated by Teng Ssu-Yu. Leiden, E.J. Brill, 1968.Google Scholar
Zacchetti, Stefano. “Dharmagupta's Unfinished Translation of the ‘Diamond-Cleaver’ ‘(Vajracchedikā-Prajñāpāramitā-sūtra)’”. T’oung Pao 82, no. 1/3. Second Series (1996): 137–152.Google Scholar
Zheng, Yangwen. China on the Sea. How the Maritime World Shaped Modern China. Leiden, Brill, 2012.Google Scholar
Zhongsi, Ouyang, Fong, Wen C, Baolin, Cao, and et al. Chinese Calligraphy. Translated by Wang Youfen. New Haven, Yale University Press, 2008. Google Scholar