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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 06 June 2019
Buṭrus al-Bustānī (1819–1883) was one of the leading figures of the Nahḍa period. In most studies on the Nahḍa, his activities, work and projects are seen as having made an important contribution to the revival of the Arabic language by transforming it to meet the needs of modern times. Although his lexical contribution has been researched there is no comprehensive research on his grammatical contribution to the Arabic language. This article shows that al-Bustānī's Encyclopedia reflects a conservative approach toward grammar in that he confined himself to abridging the grammatical rules enshrined by traditional grammarians. However, he took a liberal and reformist approach to the lexicon that drew on both classical and Western sources.
1 Glaß, D., “Creating a modern standard language from medieval tradition: The nahda and the Arabic academies”, in The Semitic Languages, An International Handbook, (ed.) Weniger, St. in collaboration with Khan, G., Streck, M. and Watson, J. (Berlin and New York, 2012), p. 836Google Scholar.
2 Zaydān, Jurjī, “Buṭrus al-Bustānī aḥad arkān al-Nahḍa al-akhīra fī bilād al-Shām”, al-Hilāl 4 (1895), pp. 363, 362–367Google Scholar. Cf. Anonymous, “al-Marḥūm al-muʿallim Buṭrus al-Bustānī”, al-Muqtaṭaf 8 (1883), pp. 1–7Google Scholar; al-Kaḥḥāla, ʿUmar Riḍā, Muʿjam al-muʾallifīn. Tarājim muṣannifī al-kutub al-ʿarabiyya (Damascus, 1957), Vol. 3, pp. 48–49Google Scholar; Glaß, D., “Butrus al-Bustānī (1819-–883) als Enzyklopädiker der Arabischen Renaissance”, in Studien zur Semitistik und Arabistik, Festschrift für Hartmut Bobzin zum 60. Geburtstag, (eds.) Jastrow, O., Talay, Sh. and Hafenrichter, H. (Wiesbaden, 2008), p.108Google Scholar.
3 Zaydān, Jurjī, Tarājim mashāhīr al-sharq fī l-qarn al-tāsiʿ ʿashar (Cairo, 1923), Vol. 2, pp. 27–32Google Scholar. Cf. Glaß, Butrus al-Bustānī (1819–1883) als Enzyklopädiker, p. 109.
4 Zachs, F., The Making of a Syrian Identity: Intellectuals and Merchants in Nineteenth Century Beirut (Leiden and Boston, 2005), pp. 145–148Google Scholar; Zachs, F., “Toward a proto-nationalist concept of Syria? Revisiting the american presbyterian missionaries in the nineteenth-century Levant,” Die Welt des Islams 41 (2001), pp. 145–173CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
5 For more details see, Abu-Manneh, B., “The Christians between Ottomanism and syrian nationalism. The ideas of Butrus al-Bustani”, IJMES 11 (1980), pp. 287–304Google Scholar; ʿAbbūd, Mārūn, Ruwwād al-nahḍa al-ḥadītha (Beirut 1966), pp. 204–10Google Scholar; Dāghir, Yūsuf Asʿad, Maṣādir al-dirāsa al-adabiyya (Beirut 2000), pp. 281–285Google Scholar; al-Ziriklī, Khayr al-Dīn, al-Aʿlām: Qāmūs tarājim li-ashhar al-rijāl wa-l-nisāʾ min al-ʿarab wa-l-mutaʿarribīn wa-l-mustashriqīn (Cairo 1954), pp. 3–31Google Scholar; Ṭarrāzī, Fīlīb dī, Taʾrīkh al-ṣihāfa al-ʿarabiyya (Beirut, 1913–24), Vol. 1, pp. 89–92, Vol. 2, pp. 68–70, pp. 159–168Google Scholar; Tibawi, Abdul Latif, “The american missionaries in Beirut and Butrus al-Bustani”, St Antonyʿs Papers, MEA 16 (1963), pp. 137–182Google Scholar; Glaß, Butrus al-Bustānī (1819–1883) als Enzyklopädiker, pp. 111–112.
6 See for example, Hourani, A., Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1798–1939 (London, 1970), pp. 90–102Google Scholar; Jandora, J. W., “Butrus al-Bustani, Arab consciousness and Arabic revival”, MW 74 (1984), pp. 71–84Google Scholar; Sheehi, S. P., “Inscribing the Arab self: Buṭrus al-Bustānī and paradigms of subjective reform”, British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 27/1 (2000), pp. 7–24CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
7 Jandora, Butrus al-Bustani, Arab consciousness and Arabic revival, p. 72–73, 78.
8 Al-Yāzijī wrote Faṣl al-ḫiṭāb fī uṣūl lughat al-iʿrāb which was probably first printed in 1889. Al-Shidyāq published a grammar book which was first printed in 1872 entitled Ghunyat al-ṭālib wa-munyat al-rāghib fī l-ṣarf wa-l-naḥw.
9 Jandora, Butrus al-Bustani, Arab consciousness and Arabic revival, p. 78.
10 Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, pp. 164–173. Cf. Hourani, A., “Bustaniʿs Encyclopaedia”, Journal of Islamic Studies 1 (1991), p. 111CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Glaß, D. “Enzyklopädien der Nahda – Strategien der Wissenspräsentation in der Arabischen Moderneä”, in Jahrbuch des Simon-Dubnow-Instituts (JBDI), (ed.) Diner, D. (Göttingen, 2010), pp. 330–331Google Scholar; Glaß, Butrus al-Bustānī (1819–1883) als Enzyklopädiker, pp. 114–115.
Volume 7, published in 1883, carried the announcement of Buṭrus al-Bustānī's death. His son Salīm, who had been his assistant from the beginning, was supposed to continue as editor, but his death was announced in the eighth volume, which appeared in 1884. Al-Bustānī's two younger sons together with Sulaymān al-Bustānī published Volume 9 in 1887. Then, after a long delay, Volume 10 came out in 1898 and Volume 11 in 1900. The eleventh volume was the last to appear; it brought the encyclopedia to the letter ʿayn.
11 A. Sanni, “The Arabic science of lexicography: State of art”, Islamic Studies 31(1992), pp. 146–155. Cf. Haywood, J., Arabic Lexicography, (Leiden, 1960). pp. 19, 41, 77–81, 90Google Scholar.
12 Ch. Pellat, Ž, Vesel, and Donzel, E. van, “Mawsūʿa”, in Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, (ed.) Bearman, Bianquis, Th., Bosworth, C. E., van Donzel, E., Heinrichs, W. P., (Brill, 2012)Google Scholar. https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/enries/encyclopaedia-ofislam-2/mawsua
13 al-Bustānī, Buṭrus, Dāʾirat al-Maʿārif (Beirut, 1876–1883), vol. 1, pp. 2–8Google Scholar.
14 See: Hourani, Bustani's Encyclopaedia, p. 116.
15 For more information on these Western encyclopedias see: Glaß, Buṭrus al-Bustānī (1819–1883) als Enzyklopädiker, pp. 120–121.
16 See: Glaß, Butrus al-Bustānī (1819–1883) als Enzyklopädiker, pp. 127–128.
17 See: Hourani, Butrus al-Bustānī (1819–1883) als Enzyklopädiker, p. 116; Fāyiz ʿIlm al-Dīn al-Qays, , Athar al-muʿallim Buṭrus al-Bustānī fī n-nahḍa fī Lubnān (Beirut, 2005), pp. 150–151Google Scholar; Glaß, Enzyklopädien der Nahda – Strategien der Wissenspräsentation in der Arabischen Moderneä, p. 345.
18 J. Haywood, Arabic Lexicography, pp. 69, 71, 79–80. Cf. R. Baalbaki, The Arabic Lexicographical Tradition (Leiden and Boston, 2014), p. 57.
19 Haywood, Arabic Lexicography, pp. 90–91, 109.
20 See: Glaß, Enzyklopädien der Nahda – Strategien der Wissenspräsentation in der Arabischen Renaissance, p. 347.
21 al-Bustānī, Buṭrus, al-Jamʿiyya al-suriyya li-l-ʿulūm wa-l-funūn (Beirut, 1990), pp. 106–110, 114Google Scholar. For more on this lecture see: Sheehi, S., “Epistemography of the modern Arab subject: Al-Muʿallim Buṭrus Al-Bustānīʿs khutbah fī adab Al-ʿArab”, Public 16 (1997), pp. 65–84Google Scholar.
22 See: Ali, Bou, “Buṭrus al-Bustānī and the shipwreck of the nation, in authoring the nahda: writing the Arabic 19th century”, special issue, Middle Eastern literatures 16:3 (2013), pp. 266–281CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
23 See: Durán, I. Lázaro, “La Léngua Árabe y su Reforma. La Visión de Buṭrus al-Bustānī y su Labor Linguística y Lexicográfica”, Miscelánea de Estudios Árabes y Hebraicos, 34 (1985), p. 259Google Scholar.
24 Lázaro Durán, La Léngua Árabe, p. 258; Abu Manneh, The Christians between ottomanisn and syrian nationalism, p. 291.
25 Patel, A., “Language reform and controversy in the nahḍa: Al-Shartūnīʿs position as a grammarian in sahm”, Journal of Semitic Studies 55 (2010), p. 509CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
26 Jandora, Butrus al-Bustani, Arab consciousness and Arabic revival, p. 77.
27 Issa, R., “The Arabic language and Syro-Lebanese national identity searching in Buṭrus al-Bustānī's Muḥīṭ al-Muḥīṭ”, Journal of Semitic Studies 62/2 (2017), p. 473CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
28 Cf. Sawāʿī, Muḥammad, “Naẓra fī mawqif Aḥmad Fāris al-Shidyāq min taṭwīr al-maʿājim al-ʿarabiyya”, Bulletin DʿÉtudes Orientales 53–54 (2002), p. 533Google Scholar; Khrisha, Eid Hamad, Ali Al-Maqableh, Mohammad and al-Mizeed, Khaled Mahmoud Asʿsud, “Efforts of the Lebanese lexicographers in authoring and developing the Arabic lexicon”, International Journal of Business and Social Science 4 (2013), pp. 90–91Google Scholar.
29 Al-Bustānī, Dāʾirat al-maʿārif, Vol. 3, pp. 749–750.
30 The translation of both terms is taken from Wright, W., A Grammar of the Arabic Language, 3rd revised edition by Smith, W. Robertson and Goeje, M. J., (Cambridge, 1971), part III, p. 198Google Scholar.
31 A similar example is the term istithnāʾ “exception” (Vol. 3, 379), where al-Bustānī explains its meaning briefly and then indicates that there are two types of istithnāʾ: al-istithnāʾ al-muttaṣil “the thing excepted (al-mustathnā) is joined to, or the same kind as, the general term (al-mustathnā minhu)” and al-istithnāʾ al-munqatiʿ “the exception is severed from, or wholly different in kind from the general term”.
32 See for example: Al-Anbārī, Abū al-Barakāt ʿAbd al-Raḥmān, Asrār al-ʿarabiyya (Beirut, 1957), pp. 269–270Google Scholar; Mubarrad Abū al-ʿAbbās Muḥammad Ibn Yazīd, al-Muqtaḍab (Beirut, 1994), Vol. 4, p. 136Google Scholar; al-Sarrāj, Ibn, Ibn Abū Bakr al-Baghdādī, al-Uṣūl fī l-naḥw (Beirut, 1973), Vol. 2, pp. 5–6Google Scholar.
33 as-Suyūṭī, Jalāl al-Dīn. n.d. Hamʿ al-hawāmiʿ fī sharḥ jamʿ al-jawāmiʿ (Beirut, 1989), Vol. 4, p. 236Google Scholar
34 See: Dror, Y., “Annexation (ʾiḍāfa) in Arabic grammatical thought”, Journal Asiatique 304/2(2016), p. 179Google Scholar.
35 Sībawayhi, Abū Bishr ʿAmr Ibn ʿUthmān Ibn Qanbar, al-Kitāb (Cairo, 1988), Vol. 3, p. 335Google Scholar.
36 See for example: Al-Anbārī, Asrār al-ʿarabiyya, p. 269.
37 See: Suyūṭī, Hamʿ al-hawāmiʿ, Vol. 4, p. 270.
38 Al-Bustānī, Miṣbāḥ al-miftāḥ fī l-ṣarf wa-l-naḥw (Beirut, 1876), p. 359Google Scholar.
39 Yaʿīsh, Ibn, al-Dīn, Muwaffaq, Sharḥ al-mufaṣṣal (Beirut, 1994), Vol 3, p. 26Google Scholar.
40 Al-Bustānī, Miṣbāḥ al-miftāḥ, p. 360.
41 Al-Anbārī ʿAbd al-Raḥman Ibn Muḥammad, al-Inṣāf fī masāʾil al-khilāf bayna al-naḥwiyyīna al-baṣriyyīna wa-l-kūfiyyīna (Beirut, 1987), pp. 427–436Google Scholar.
42 See for example: al-Astarābāḏī, Raḍī al-Dīn Muḥammad Ibn al-Ḥasan, Sharḥ kāfiyat Ibn al-Ḥājib, (Beirut, 1998), Vol. 2, pp. 286–287Google Scholar.
43 Al-Bustānī, Miṣbāḥ al-miftāḥ, p. 357.
44 See: Dror, Annexation, pp. 185–187.
45 Ibid., pp. 188–189.
46 Al-Bustānī, Dāʾirat al-maʿārif, Vol. 2, p. 630.
47 Al-bayān is a branch which covers rhetorical figures that contribute to the creation of a literary image. For the three main branches of rhetoric see: A. A. Hussein, The Rhetorical Fabric of the Traditional Arabic Qaṣīda in the Formative Stages: A Comparative Study of the Rhetoric in Two Traditional Poems by ʿAlqama l-Faḥl and Bashshār b. Burd, (Wiesbaden, 2015), pp. 1–9.
48 al-Bustānī, Buṭrus, Miṣbāḥ al-ṭālib fī baḥth al-maṭālib (Beirut, 1854), pp. 276–277Google Scholar.
49 See: al-Astarābāḏī, Sharḥ kāfiyat Ibn al-Ḥājib, (Beirut, 1988), Vol. 2, p. 238Google Scholar.
50 See: Dror, Y., “A definition of the term ʾiḫtiṣāṣ”, Journal of Oriental and African Studies, 24 (2015), pp. 75–85Google Scholar.
51 Sībawayhi, Abū Bishr ʻAmr Ibn ʻUthmān Ibn Qanbar, al-Kitāb (Beirut, 1980), Vol. 2, p. 230.
52 Ibid., Vol. 2, p. 234.
53 See: Dror, “A definition of the term ʾiḫtiṣāṣ”, pp. 84–85.
54 Al-Bustānī, Dāʾirat al-maʿārif, Vol. 2, pp. 675–676.
55 Al-Bustānī, Miṣbāḥ al-ṭālib, pp. 40–44.
56 Al-Bustānī, Miṣbāḥ al-miftāḥ, pp. 47–51.
57 Mubarrad, al-Muqtaḍab, Vol. 1, p. 209.
58 Al-Bustānī (vol. 2, 443) begins with reference to the term ittisāʿ in medicine, or more precisely to ittisāʿ al-ʿaṣab al-mujawaff “the expanse of the optic nerve”.
This medical terminology is mentioned in old Arabic sources, such as Rāzī, ʾAbū Bakr Muḥammad Ibn Zakariyā, Kitāb al-ḥāwī fī l-ṭibb, (Beirut, 2000), Vol. 1, p. 206Google Scholar.
59 Al-Bustānī mentions the verse idhā qāmatā taḍawwaʿa al-misku minhumā nasīma ṣ-ṣabbā jāʾat bi-rayyā l-qarnafuli “When they stood up, the scent of the musk wafted from both of them, a pleasant breeze carried the smell of the clove”. The critics say that this verse should be paraphrased as taḍawwaʿa mithla al-miski minhumā nasīmu ṣ-ṣabbā “the pleasant breeze wafted like their [scent of] musk [wafted], or like the [scent of] the musk [wafted] from them”. Others say that it should be paraphrased as taḍawwaʿa al-misku minhumā ka- taḍawwuʿi nasīmi ṣ-ṣabbā “The musk wafted from them like the waft of the pleasant breeze”. This elaboration in known as al-ittisāʿ al-badīʿī “the rhetorical extension”.
A similar definition of the term al-ittisāʿ al-badīʿī is mentioned in old sources such as al-ʿAdwānī ʿAbd al-ʿAẓīm Ibn al-Wāḥid Ibn Ẓāfir Ibn Abī al-Iṣbaʿ, Taḥrir al-taḥbīr fī ṣināʿat al-shiʿr wa-l-nathr (no publication house, 1963), p. 454.
60 See: Dror, Y. and Jabarin, A., “Occurrences of the term saʿat āl-kalām in Arabic grammatical tradition”, Journal of Arabic Linguistics Tradition 16 (2018), pp. 1–20Google Scholar.
61 Versteegh, K., Kees, , “Freedom of the speaker” in Studies of the History of Arabic Grammar II, (eds.) Versteegh, K. and Carter, M., (Amsterdam/Philadelphia, 1990), p. 282CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
Versteegh explains this as follows: “In an ordinary deletion (ḥadhf) the governing word (ʿāmil) of the governed word (maʿmūl fīhi) disappears from the construction, while the declensional relationship between them remains intact”.
62 Al-Bustānī, Miṣbāḥ al-ṭālib, pp. 199–200.
63 Al-Bustānī, Miṣbāḥ al-miftāḥ, pp. 291–292.
64 Al-Bustānī, Dāʾirat al-maʿārif, Vol. 3, p. 698.
65 See for example: Ibn Hishām, Jamāl al-Dīn al-Anṣārī, Awḍaḥ al-masālik ilā alfiyyat Ibn Mālik (Beirut, 1979), vol. 2, pp. 158–175Google Scholar; Suyūṭī, Hamʿ al-hawāmiʿ, Vol. 5, pp. 149–162).
66 Al-Bustānī, Dāʾirat al-maʿārif, Vol. 3, p. 416.
67 Other examples can be found in the following entries: istiʾnāf (Vol. 3, 443); iʿrāb (Vol. 3765); imāla (Vol. 4, 352); tābiʿ (Vol. 6, 2).
68 Sawaie, M., “Rifa a Rafi al-Tahtawi and his contribution to the lexical development of modern literary Arabic”, International Journal of Middle East Studies, 32/3 (2000), pp. 402–403CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Versteegh, K., The Arabic Language (Edinburgh, 2014), pp. 228–233Google Scholar
69 Al-Bustānī, Dāʾirat al-maʿārif, Vol. 3, p. 474.
70 Ibid., Vol. 3, p. 10.
71 Ibid., Vol. 4, p. 102.
72 Ibid., Vol. 5, pp. 179–180.
73 Ibid., Vol. 5, p. 287.
74 Ibid., Vol. 5, p. 619.
75 Ibid., Vol. 6, p. 201. See also Glaß, Butrus al-Bustānī (1819–1883) als Enzyklopädiker, p. 137.
76 Al-Bustānī, Dāʾirat al-maʿārif, Vol. 1, p. 386.
77 Ibn Manẓūr Abū al-Faḍl Jamāl al-Dīn Muḥammad Ibn Mukram, Lisān al-ʿarab (Beirut, 1994), Vol. 1, p. 26Google Scholar.
78 Al-Fīrūzābādī, Majd al-Dīn Abū Ṭāhir Muḥammad Ibn Yaʿqūb, al-Qāmūs al-muḥīṭ (Beirut, 2005), p. 341Google Scholar.
79 Al-Bustānī, Dāʾirat al-maʿārif, Vol. 6, p. 45.
80 Ibn Manẓūr, Lisān al-ʿarab, Vol. 1, p. 259.
81 Al-Fīrūzābādī, al-Qāmūs al-muḥīṭ, 1265.
82 Al-Bustānī, Dāʾirat al-maʿārif, Vol. 6, p. 441.
Versteegh, The Arabic Language, p. 230 says that this word denotes originally “strip of palm-leaf used for writing”.
83 Ibn Manẓūr, Lisān al-ʿarab, Vol. 1, p. 402.
84 Al-Bustānī, Dāʾirat al-maʿārif, Vol. 6, p. 574.
85 Ibn Manẓūr, Lisān al-ʿarab, Vol. 1, p. 478.
86 Al-Bustānī, Dāʾirat al-maʿārif, Vol. 6, p. 576.
87 Ibn Manẓūr, Lisān al-ʿarab, Vol. 1, p. 486.
88 Al-Fīrūzābādī, al-Qāmūs al-muḥīṭ, p. 506.
89 Al-Bustānī, Dāʾirat al-maʿārif, Vol. 6, p. 683.
90 Ibn Manẓūr, Lisān al-ʿarab, Vol. 2, p. 17.
91 Al-Fīrūzābādī, al-Qāmūs al-muḥīṭ, p. 981.
92 Al-Bustānī, Dāʾirat al-maʿārif, Vol. 3, p. 768.
93 Ibn Manẓūr, Lisān al-ʿarab, Vol. 4, p. 417.
94 Issa, “The Arabic language and Syro-Lebanese national identity searching in Buṭrus al-Bustānī's Muḥīṭ al-Muḥīṭ”, pp. 469–470.
95 Jandora, Butrus al-Bustani, Arab consciousness and Arabic revival, p. 73; Abu-Manneh, The Christians between Ottomanism and Syrian nationalism, pp. 287–304; Zachs, “Toward a proto-nationalist”, pp. 145–173.
96 See for more details, Zachs, F., The Making of a Syrian Identity: Intellectuals and Merchants in 19th Century Beirut (Leiden, 2005)Google Scholar.
97 Ibn Manẓūr, Lisān al-ʿarab, Vol. 1, p. 184.
98 Al-Farrāʾ (144/761-207/822) was a grammarian, who belonged to the school of Kūfa.
99 Al-Fīrūzābādī, al-Qāmūs al-muḥīṭ, p. 180.
100 Ibn Manẓūr, Lisān al-ʿarab, Vol. 1, p. 135.
101 Al-Bustānī, Dāʾirat al-maʿārif, Vol. 1, p. 125.
102 Al-Kisāʾī (119/737-189/805) was one of the transmitters of the seven canonical Qirāʾāt, or methods of reciting the Qurʾān. He was also the founder of the Kufi school of Arabic grammar.
103 Al-Bustānī, Dāʾirat al-maʿārif, Vol. 5, p. 374.
104 Ibn Manẓūr, Lisān al-ʿarab, Vol. 1, p. 201.
105 Al-Fīrūzābādī, al-Qāmūs al-muḥīṭ, p. 180.
106 Ibn Manẓūr, Lisān al-ʿarab, Vol. 1, p. 256.
107 Al-Bustānī, Dāʾirat al-maʿārif, Vol. 1, p. 343.
108 Al-Fīrūzābādī, al-Qāmūs al-muḥīṭ, p. 1264.
109 Ibn Manẓūr, Lisān al-ʿarab, Vol. 1, p. 32.
110 Al-Bustānī, Dāʾirat al-maʿārif, Vol. 1, p. 166.
111 A similar example is the word akh “brother”. See: Ibn Manẓūr, Lisān al-ʿarab, Vol. 1, p. 48; al-Fīrūzābādī, al-Qāmūs al-muḥīṭ, 1076 and al-Bustānī, Dāʾirat al-maʿārif, Vol. 2, p. 614. And umm “mother”. See: Ibn Manẓūr, Lisān al-ʻarab, Vol. 1, p. 111 and al-Bustānī, Dāʾirat al-maʿārif, Vol. 2, p. 614.
112 Ibn Manẓūr, Lisān al-ʿArab, Vol. 6, p. 408.
113 al-Fīrūzābādī, al-Qāmūs al-muḥīṭ, 264.
114 Al-Bustānī, Dāʾirat al-maʿārif, Vol. 2, p. 560.
115 A similar example is the word usbūʿ. See: Ibn Manẓūr, Lisān al-ʿarab, Vol. 3, p. 237 and al-Bustānī Dāʾirat al-maʿārif, Vol. 3, p. 383.
116 Ibn Manẓūr, Lisān al-ʻarab, Vol. 1, p. 186.
117 An additional example is the word jūʿ “hunger”. In classical lexicography (see Ibn Manẓūr, Lisān al-ʻArab, vol. 1, 488) it is defined as the lack of feeling of satiety. Al-Bustānī, Dāʾirat al-maʿārif, Vol. 6, p. 594, however refers exhaustively to the physical aspects of hunger.
118 Al-Bustānī, Dāʾirat al-maʿārif, Vol. 5, pp. 534–535.
119 Ibn Manẓūr, Lisān al-ʿarab, Vol. 1, p. 238.