Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-xbtfd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-20T00:39:57.649Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Acoustic characteristics and placement within vowel space of full schwa in the world’s languages: A survey

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 March 2021

Daniel Recasens Open the ORCID record for Daniel Recasens [Opens in a new window]
Daniel Recasens*
Affiliation:
Department of Catalan Philology, Universitat Autònoma de [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Data from about one hundred languages reveal that, in spite of resulting typically from articulatory reduction of peripheral vowels in unstressed position, full schwa may also occur in stressed position in stress languages and in unreduced syllables in languages lacking stress. Formant frequency data reveal that this vowel is mid central, though somewhat shifted to the mid back unrounded area (particularly if long and placed in open syllables and at the edges of words), and exhibits a higher or lower realization depending on the number of mid vowels in the vowel system. In spite of occurring in stressed position, full schwa resembles unstressed schwa in being very short, highly variable and possibly low intensity, which accounts for why it is prone to occur in closed syllables and longer words, and may receive stress only if the remaining vowel nuclei in the word are central and/or short peripheral. Moreover, variability in the F1 and F2 dimensions increases with the number of peripheral mid vowels, which appears to obey symmetry and dispersion principles of vowel space organization.

Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of the International Phonetic Association , Volume 52 , Issue 1 , April 2022 , pp. 59 - 94
Check for updates
Copyright
© International Phonetic Association 2021

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abramson, Arthur S. 1962. The vowels and tones of Standard Thai. Bloomington, IN: Research Center in Anthropology, Folklore, and Linguistics, Indiana University.Google Scholar
Adelaar, Alexander. 1981. Reconstruction of Proto-Batak phonology. In Blust, Robert A. (ed.), Historical Linguistics in Indonesia, 1–20. Jakarta: Universitas Atma Jaya.Google Scholar
Anderson-Starwalt & Grace, Coleen. 2008. The acoustic correlates of ATR harmony in seven- and nine-vowel African languages: A phonetic inquiry into phonological structure. Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Texas at Arlington.Google Scholar
Andreeva, Bistra, Barry, William J. & Koreman, Jacques. 2013. The Bulgarian stressed and unstressed vowel system: A corpus study. Proceedings of the Interspeech 2013, Lyon, 345–348.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Apiluck, Tumtavitikul. 1996. The mid central vowel [ə] in Thai. Mon-Khmer Studies Journal 26, 65–77.Google Scholar
Asu, Eva Liina & Teras, Pire. 2009. Estonian. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 39, 367–372.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Awbery, Gwenllian M. 1984. Phonotactic constraints in Welsh. In Ball, Martin J., Nicole, Müller & Jones, G. E. (eds.), Welsh phonology: Selected readings, 65–104. Cardiff: University of Wales Press.Google Scholar
Barthmaier, Paul. 1998. Lushootseed vowels: A preliminary phonetic study. Papers for the 33rd International Conference on Salish and Neighboring Languages, 1–11. Seattle: University of Washington Press.Google Scholar
Basu, Joyanta, Basu, Tulika, Khan, Soma, Pal, Madhab, Roy, Rajib & Basu, Tapan Kumar. 2016. Experimental study of vowels in Nagamese, Ao and Lotha: Languages of Nagaland. In Dipti Misra, Sharma, Rajeev, Sangal & Anil Kumar, Singh (eds.), Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Natural Language Processing, 315–323. Varanasi: NLP Association of India.Google Scholar
Bates, Sarah. 1995. Towards a definition of schwa: An acoustic investigation of vowel reduction in English. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Edinburgh.Google Scholar
Becker-Kristal, Roy. 2010. Acoustic typology of vowel inventories and dispersion theory: Insights from a large cross-linguistic corpus. Ph.D. dissertation, UCLA.Google Scholar
Bergem, Dick R. van. 1993. Acoustic vowel reduction as a function of sentence accent, word stress, and word class. Speech Communication 12, 1–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bergem, Dick R. van. 1994. A model of coarticulatory effects on the schwa. Speech Communication, 14, 143–162.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bergem, Dick R. van & Koopmans-van Beinum, Florien J.. 1989. Vowel reduction in natural speech. Proceedings of Eurospeech ’89, Paris, 2285–2288.Google Scholar
Bessell, Nicola J. 1998. Local and non-local consonant-vowel interaction in Interior Salish. Phonology 15, 1–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bibiloni, Gabriel. 1983. La llengua dels mallorquins. Anàlisi sociolingüística. Master’s thesis, Universitat de Barcelona.Google Scholar
Bishop, Nancy. 1996. A preliminary description of Kensiu (Maniq) phonology. Mon-Khmer Studies Journal 25, 227–253.Google Scholar
Bladon, Anthony & Fant, Gunnar. 1978. A two-formant model and the cardinal vowels. Quarterly Progress and Status Report, Royal Institute of Technology, KTH, Stockholm, 19, 1–8.Google Scholar
Blake, Susan J. & Shahin, Kimary. 2008. On the phonetics of schwa in Sliammon (M.Comox Salish): Implications for the representation of Salish vowels. Journal of the Canadian Acoustical Association 36, 42–43.Google Scholar
Blankenship, Barbara, Ladefoged, Peter, Bhaskararao, Peri & Chase, Nichumeno. 1993. Phonetic structures of Khonama Angami. UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics 84, 127–141.Google Scholar
Blust, Robert. 2013. The Austronesian languages. Canberra: Australian National University Press.Google Scholar
Botha, Liesbeth. 1996. Towards modelling acoustic differences between L1 and L2 speech: The short vowels of Afrikaans and South-African English. Proceedings of Institute of Phonetic Sciences, University of Amsterdam, 20, 65–80.Google Scholar
Bowers, Dustin. 2019. Positional- vs sonority-driven stress in Gujarati: New experimental evidence. Phonological Data and Analysis 1, 1–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boyd, Virginia Lee. 2015. The phonological systems of the Mbam languages of Cameroon with a focus on vowels and vowel harmony. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Leiden.Google Scholar
Bradlow, Ann R. 1995. A comparative study of English and Spanish vowels. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 97, 1916–1924.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Breen, Gavan & Dobson, Veronica. 2005. Illustrations of the IPA: Central Arrernte. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 35, 249–254.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Browman, Catherine P. & Goldstein, Louis. 1992. ‘Targetless’ schwa: An articulatory analysis. In Robert, Ladd & Gerard, Docherty (eds.), Papers in laboratory phonology II: Gesture, segment, prosody, 26–67. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bürki, Audrey, Fougeron, Cécile, Gendrot, Cedric & Frauenfelder, Ulrich H.. 2011. Phonetic reduction versus phonological deletion of French schwa: Some methodological issues. Journal of Phonetics 39, 279–288.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Calvet, Maurice J. 1966. Étude phonétique des voyelles du Wolof. Phonetica 14, 138–168.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Capo, Hounkpati B. C. 1991. A comparative phonology of Gbe. Berlin & New York: Foris Publications/Garome, Bénin: Labo Gbe (Int.).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carlton, Terence R. 1990. Introduction to the phonological history of the Slavic languages. Columbus: Slavica Publishers.Google Scholar
Catford, John C. 1988. Notes on the phonetics of Nias. In Richard, McGinn (ed.), Studies in Austronesian languages of Asia and Madagascar, 562–589. London: Routledge Curzon.Google Scholar
Chen, Chun-Mei. 2006. A comparative study on Formosan phonology: Paiwan and Budai Rukai. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Texas at Austin.Google Scholar
Chen, Yiya. 2008. The acoustic realization of vowels of Shanghai Chinese. Journal of Phonetics 36, 629–648.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, Yiya & Gussenhoven, Carlos. 2015. Shangai Chinese. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 45, 321–327.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chitoran, Iona. 2001. The phonology of Romanian. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Cho, Taehong, Jun, Sun-Ah, Jung, Seung-Chul & Ladefoged, Peter. 2001. Vowels of Cheju. Korean Journal of Linguistics 26, 801–819.Google Scholar
Choi, John D. 1991. An acoustic study of Kabardian vowels. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 1, 4–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, Larry. 1998. Chuvash. In Lars, Johanson & Csató, Eva A. (eds.), The Turkic languages, 434–452. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Clynes, Adrian & Deterding, David. 2011. Standard Malay (Brunei). Journal of the International Phonetic Association 41, 259–268.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohn, Abigail C. & Lockwood, Katherine. 1994. A phonetic description of Madurese and its phonological implications. Working Papers Cornell Phonetics Laboratory 9, 67–92.Google Scholar
Colarusso, John. 1988. The Northwest Caucassian languages. Calgary: University of Calgary Press.Google Scholar
Conklin, Jenna T. 2015. The interaction of gradient and categorical processes of long-distance vowel-to-vowel assimilation in Kazan Tatar. Master’s thesis, University of Purdue.Google Scholar
Coupe, Alexander R. 2003. A phonetic and phonological description of Ao: A Tibeto-Burman language of Nagaland, North-east India. Canberra: Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University.Google Scholar
Cox, Felicity M. & Palethorpe, Sallyanne. 2007. Australian English. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 37, 341–350.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crosswhite, Katherine. 2001. Vowel reduction in Optimality Theory. New York & London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Cruz-Ferreira, Madalena. 1999. Portuguese (European). Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, 126–130. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Csúcs, Sándor. 1998. Udmurt. In Daniel, Abondolo (ed.), The Uralic Languages, 276–304. London: Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Cunha de Oliveira, Christiane. 2005. The Language of the Apinajé people of Central Brazil. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Oregon.Google Scholar
Czaykowska-Higgins, Ewa & Dale Kinkade, M.. 1998. Salish languages and linguistics. In Czaykowska-Higgins, Ewa & Dale Kinkade, M. (eds.), Salish languages and linguistics, 1–70. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Daudey, Henriette. 2014. A grammar of Wadu Pumi. Ph.D. dissertation, La Trobe University.Google Scholar
Dauzat, Albert. 1897. Études linguistiques sur la Basse-Auvergne: Phonétique historique du patois de Vinzelles (Puy-de-Dôme). Paris: F. Alcan.Google Scholar
Dave, Radhekant. 1968. A formant analysis of the clear, nasalized, and murmured vowels in Gujarati. Annual Report, Institute of Phonetics, University of Copenhagen 2, 119–132.Google Scholar
Davies, William D. 2010. A Grammar of Madurese. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Delgado Martins, Maria R. 1964–1973. Análise acústica das vogais orais tónicas em português. Boletim de Filologia 22, 303–314.Google Scholar
Demiraj, Shaban. 1998. Albanian. In Giacalone, Ramat & Paolo, Ramat (eds.), Las lenguas indoeuropeas, 607–634. Madrid: Cátedra.Google Scholar
Deterding, David. 1997. The formants of monophthong vowels in Standard Southern British English pronunciation. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 27, 47–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Donaldson, Bruce C. 1993. A grammar of Afrikaans. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dum-Tragut, Jasmine. 2009. Armenian. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dworecka, Joana. 2013. Aspectos da fonologia da língua Sanumá. Ph.D. dissertation, Universidade Federal de Roraima.Google Scholar
Dyck, Ruth Anne. 2004. Prosodic and morphological factors in Squamish stress assignment. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Victoria.Google Scholar
Eades, Domenyk & Hajek, John. 2006. Gayo. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 36, 107–115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eady, Stephen J. 1982. Differences in the F0 patterns of speech: Tone language versus stress language. Language and Speech 25, 29–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eek, Aarvo & Meister, Einar. 1998. Quality of standard Estonian vowels in stressed and unstressed syllables of the feet in three distinctive quantity degrees. Linguistica Uralica 34, 226–233.Google Scholar
Eijk, Jan P. van. 2011. The Lillooet language: Phonology, morphology, syntax. Vancouver: UBC Press.Google Scholar
Emerich, Giang Huong. 2012. The Vietnamese vowel system. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania.Google Scholar
Epps, Patience. 2008. A grammar of Hup. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Estill, Dennis. 2010. The enigmatic central vowel in Moksha. How central, how reduced. In Stefan, Werner & Tomi, Kinnunen (eds.), XXVI Fonetiikan Päivät, 33–37. Joensuu: Itä-Suomen yliopisto.Google Scholar
Estill, Dennis. 2012. Revisiting the Meadow Mari vocalic system. Linguistica Uralica 48, 228–237.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fant, Gunnar. 1960. Acoustic theory of speech production. The Hague: Mouton.Google Scholar
Flemming, Edward S. 2002. Auditory representations in phonology. New York & London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Flemming, Edward S. 2009. The phonetics of schwa vowels. In Donka, Minkova (ed.), Phonological weakness in English: From old to present-day, 78–95. Basingstoke & York: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flemming, Edward S., Peter, Ladefoged & Thomason, Sarah. 2008. Phonetic structures of Montana Salish. Journal of Phonetics 36, 465–491.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foley, William A. 1986. The Papuan languages of New Guinea. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Friedman, Victor A. 2001. Macedonian. The Slavic and Eurasian Language Resource Center, Duke University.Google Scholar
Fulop, Sean A., Ethelbert, Kari & Ladefoged, Peter. 1998. An acoustic study of the tongue root contrast in Degema vowels. Phonetica 55, 80–98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gair, James W. 2003. Sinhalese. In George, Cardona & Jain, Dhanesh (eds.), The Indo-Aryan Languages, 766–817. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Galloway, Brent. 1977. A grammar of Chilliwack Halkomelem. Ph.D. dissertation, University of California at Berkeley.Google Scholar
Galloway, Brent. 1983. A look at Nooksack phonology. In Eugene, Hunn & Bill, Seaburg (eds.), Working Papers of the 18th International Conference on Salishan Language, 80–132. Seattle: University of Washington.Google Scholar
Gartner, Theodor. 1879. Die Gredner Mundart. Linz: Wimmer.Google Scholar
Gick, Bryan. 2002. An X-ray investigation of pharyngeal constriction in American English schwa. Phonetica 59, 38–48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gick, Bryan, Min Kang, A. & Whalen, Doud H.. 2002. MRI evidence for commonality in the post-oral articulations of English vowels and liquids. Journal of Phonetics 30, 357–372.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilles, Peter & Trouvain, Jürgen. 2013. Luxembourgish. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 43, 67–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gillies, William. 2009. Scottish Gaelic. In Ball, Martin J. & Nicole, Müller (eds.), The Celtic languages, 230–304. London & New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Gordon, Matthew. 2006. Syllable weight: Phonetics, phonology, and typology. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Gordon, Matthew & Applebaum, Ayla. 2010. Acoustic correlates of stress in Turkish Kabardian. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 40, 35–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gordon, Matthew, Ghushchyan, Edita, McDonnell, Brad, Rosenblum, Daisy & Shaw, Patricia. 2012. Sonority and central vowels: A cross-linguistic phonetic study. In Steve, Parker (ed.), The sonority controversy, 219–256. Berlin & Boston: De Gruyter Mouton.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gordon, Matthew & Maddieson, Ian. 2004. The phonetics of Paicĩ vowels. Oceanic Linguistics 43, 296–310.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Granser, Theodor & Moosmüller, Sylvia. 2001. The schwa in Albanian. Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Speech Communication and Technology, 317–320.Google Scholar
Gravina, Richard. 2014. The phonology of Proto-Central Chadic. Utrecht: LOT.Google Scholar
Gueye, G. 1986. Les correlats articulatoires et acoustique de la distinction ±ATR en Ndut. Travaux de l’Institut de Phonétique de Strasbourg 18, 137–249.Google Scholar
Hardcastle, William J., John, Laver & Gibbon, Fiona E.. 2010. The handbook of phonetic sciences. Oxford & Malden: Wiley-Blackwell.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hargus, Sharon. 2005. Prosody in two Athabaskan languages. In Sharon, Hargus & Keren, Rice (eds.), Athabaskan prosody, 393–423. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hargus, Sharon. 2007. Witsuwit’en grammar: Phonetics, grammar, morphology. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press.Google Scholar
Hargus, Sharon. 2010. Vowel quality and duration in Yukon Deg Xinag. In Siri Tuttle & Justin Spence (eds.), Working Papers in Athabaskan Languages 2009, 33–73. Fairbanks, AK: University of Alaska Fairbanks.Google Scholar
Hawkins, Sarah & Midgley, Jonathan. 2005. Formant frequencies of RP monophthongs in four age groups of speakers. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 35, 183–199.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heath, Daniel & Heath, Teresa. 1982. A phonology of the Makaa Language. Yaoundé: SIL.Google Scholar
Heffner, Roe-Merrill. S. 1950. General phonetics. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
Helimski, Eugene. 1998. Nganasan. In Daniel, Abondolo (ed.), The Uralic languages, 480–515. London: Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Hetzron, Robert. 1997. Awngi phonology. In Kaye, Alan S. (ed.), Phonologies of Asia and Africa, vol. 2, 477–491. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns.Google Scholar
Hopkins, Paul Stanley. 2001. Phonological structure of the Kashubian word. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Victoria.Google Scholar
Hu, Fang & Ge, Chunyu. 2016. Vowels and diphthongs in Cangnan Southern Min Chinese dialect. Proceedings of Interspeech 2016, San Francisco, 978–982.Google Scholar
Hugjiltu, Wu. 2003. Bonan. In Janhunen, Juha A. (ed.), The Mongolic language, 129–153. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Hulst, Harry van der, Goedemans, Rob & van Zanten, Ellen. 2010. A Survey of word accentual patterns in the languages of the World. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hulst, Harry van der, Hendriks, Bernadette & Weijer, Jeroen van de. 2008. Word prosodic systems in the languages of Europe. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Hwang-Cherng, Gong. 2003. Tangut. In Graham, Thurgood & Randy, LaPolla (eds.), The Sino-Tibetan languages, 602–620. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Iivonen, Antti & Harnud, Huhe. 2005. Acoustical comparison of the monophthong systems in Finnish, Mongolian and Udmurt. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 35, 59–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ivanov, V. 2001. Prosodic reduction of vowels in Pashto. Issledovia po Iranskoy Philologii, Vypusk 3, 5–17.Google Scholar
Iwatsuki, Shinya. 2012. An acoustic analysis of Amharic vowels. Studies in Ethiopian Languages 1, 19–31.Google Scholar
Jha, Sunil Kumar. 2001. Maithili: Some aspects of its phonetics and phonology. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.Google Scholar
Joswig, Andreas. 2010. The phonology of Awngi. Dallas, TX: SIL International.Google Scholar
Jurgec, Peter. 2005. Formant frequencies of standard Slovene vowels. Govor 22, 127–144.Google Scholar
Kari, Ethelbert E. 2007. Vowel harmony in Degema. Nigeria African Study Monographs 28, 87–97.Google Scholar
Katsura, Makio. 1970. An outline of the structure of the Akha language (Part 1): Introduction and phonemics. Tonan Ajia Kenkyu (Southeast Asian Studies) 8, 16–35.Google Scholar
Kenyon, John Samuel. 1950. American pronunciation. Ann Arbor: George Wahr.Google Scholar
Khalili, Niloofar Nathalie. 2016. Contact-induced cross-dialectal phonetic variability in an endangered Iranian language: The case of Taleshi. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Colorado.Google Scholar
Khatiwada, Rajesh. 2009. Nepali. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 39, 373–380.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kinkade, Marvin D. 1963. Phonology and morphology of Upper Chehalis. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Indiana.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kinkade, Marvin D. 1998. How much does a schwa weigh? In Ewa Czaykowska-Higgins & Dale Kinkade, M. (eds.), Shalish languages and linguistics, 197–218. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Kirby, James P. 2011. Vietnamese (Hanoi Vietnamese). Journal of the International Phonetic Association 41, 381–392.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kondo, Yuko. 1994. Targetless schwa: Is that how we get the impression of stress-timing in English? Proceedings of the Edinburgh Linguistics Department Conference ’94, 63–76.Google Scholar
Koopmans-van, Beinum, Florien. 1992. What’s in a schwa? Phonetica 51, 68–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koul, Omkar N. 2003. Kashmiri. In George, Cardona & Jain, Dhanesh (eds.), The Indo-Aryan languages, 895–952. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Ladefoged, Peter. 1968. A phonetic study of West African languages: An auditory-instrumental survey. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Ladefoged, Peter, Ladefoged, Jenny, Turk, Alice, Hind, Kevin & Skilton, St. John. 1998. Phonetic structures of Scottish Gaelic. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 28, 1–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lecoq, Pierre. 1989. Les dialectes caspiens et les dialectes du nord-ouest de l’Iran. In Rüdiger, Schmitt (ed.), Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum, 296–312. Wiesbaden: Ludwig Reichert Verlag.Google Scholar
Lee, Hyun Bok. 1999. Korean. Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, 120–123. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Lee, Wai-Sum & Zee, Eric. 2003. Standard Chinese (Bejing). Journal of the International Phonetic Association 33, 109–112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lehiste, Ilse. 1970. Suprasegmentals. Cambridge: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Lehiste, Ilse & Popov, K.. 1970. An acoustic analysis of Bulgarian syllable nuclei. Phonetica 21, 40–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lehiste, Ilse, Pire Teras, Toomas Help, Pärtel Lippus, Einar Meister, Karl Pajsalu & Tit-Rein Viitso. 2005. Meadow Mari Prosody. Linguistica Uralica, Supplementary Series, vol. 2. Tallinn.Google Scholar
Leonard, Janet L. 2006. Formalising stress in SENĆOŦEN. Master’s thesis, Department of Linguistics, University of Victoria.Google Scholar
Leonard, Janet L. (unpublished) The quality and length of stressed versus unstressed vowels in Saanich (Salish) (https://blogs.kent.ac.uk/baap/files/2018/03/BAAP-2018_Leonard.pdf).Google Scholar
Leslau, Wolf. 1997. Amharic phonology. In Kaye, Alan S. & Daniels, Peter T. (ed.), Phonologies of Asia and Africa, vol. 2, 399–430. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns.Google Scholar
Liljencrants, Johan & Lindblom, Bjorn. 1972. Numerical simulation of vowel quality systems: The role of perceptual contrast. Language 48, 839–862.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lindblom, Bjorn. 1967. Vowel duration and a model of lip mandible coordination. Quarterly Progress and Status Report, Department for Speech, Music and Hearing, KTH, Stockholm, 1–29.Google Scholar
Lohagun, Nishant. 2018. Comparing formants and vowel duration in standard and non-standard varieties of Nepali. Language in India 18, 225–238.Google Scholar
Lonnet, Antoine & Simeone-Semelle, Marie-Claude. 1997. La phonologie des langues sudarabiques modernes. In Kaye, Alan S. & Daniels, Peter T. (eds.), Phonologies of Asia and Africa, vol. 2, 337–372. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns.Google Scholar
Maddieson, Ian. 1984. Patterns of sounds. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maddieson, Ian. 1987. The Margi vowel system and labiocoronals. Studies in African Linguistics 18, 327–355.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maddieson, Ian & Anderson, Vicoria. 1994. Phonetic structures of Iaai. UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics 87, 163–182.Google Scholar
Mayr, Robert & Davies, Hannah. 2011. A cross-dialectal acoustic study of the monophthongs and diphthongs of Welsh. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 41, 1–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCarus, Ernest N. 1997. Kurdish. In Kaye, Alan S. & Daniels, Peter T. (eds.), Phonologies of Asia and Africa, vol. 2, 691–706. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns.Google Scholar
McCarus, Ernest N. 2009. Kurdish. In Gernot, Windfuhr (ed.), The Iranian languages, 587–633. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
McDonnell, Bradley. 2016. Acoustic correlates of stress in Besemah. In Yanti & Timothy, McKinnon (eds.), Studies in language typology and change, NUSA 60, 1–28.Google Scholar
McDougall, Kirsty. 2003. Vowel-to-vowel coarticulatory evidence of the targetful nature of schwa. In Sallyanne, Palethorpe & Marija, Tabain (eds.), Proceedings of the 6th International Seminar on Speech Production, 161–166. Sydney: Macquarie University.Google Scholar
Merwe, Anita van der, Groenewald, Emily, van Aardt, D., Tesner, H. E. C. & Grimbeek, R. J.. 1993. Die formantpatrone van Afrikaanse vokale soos geproduseer deur manlike sprekers. South African Journal of Linguistics, 11, 71–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Messele, Abebayehu. 2007. An acoustic analysis of a pathological speech: The case of an Amharic speaking person with flaccid dysarthria. MA thesis, Adis Ababa University.Google Scholar
Mielke, Jeff. 2008. The emergence of distinctive features. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Misra, Bal Govind. 1967. Historical phonology of Modern Standard Hindi: Proto-Indo-European to the present. Ph.D. dissertation, Cornell University.Google Scholar
Mistry, P. J. 1997. Gujarati. In Kaye, Alan S. & Daniels, Peter T. (eds.), Phonologies of Asia and Africa, vol. 2, 653–673. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns.Google Scholar
Miyaoka, Osahito. 2012. A grammar of Central Alaskan Yupik (Cay). Berlin: De Gruyter.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Montler, Timothy A. 1998. The major processes affecting Klallam vowels. Papers for the 33rd International Conference on Salish and Neighboring Languages, University of Washington, Seattle, 366–373.Google Scholar
Moon, Seung-Jae & Lindblom, Bjorn. 1994. Interaction between duration, context, and speaking style in English stressed vowels. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 96, 40–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mooshammer, Christine & Geng, Christian. 2008. Acoustic and articulatory manifestations of vowel reduction in German. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 38, 117–136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moosmüller, Sylvia & Granser, Theodor. 2006. The spread of Standard Albanian: An illustration based on an analysis of vowels. Language Variation and Change 18, 121–140.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moran, Steven, Daniel, McCloy & Ricard, Wright. 2014. PHOIBLE Online. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. http://phoible.org.Google Scholar
Nakhat, Fatima & Rabea, Aden. 2003. Vowel structure of Urdu. CRULP Annual Student Report, Akhbar-e-Urdu, National Language Authority, Islamabad, Pakistan.Google Scholar
Nichols, Johanna. 1997. Chechen phonology. In Kaye, Alan S. & Daniels, Peter T. (eds.), Phonologies of Asia and Africa, vol. 2, 941–972. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns.Google Scholar
Nolan, Tess. 2017. A phonetic investigation of vowel variation in Lekwungen. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Victoria.Google Scholar
Noonan, M. 2003. The Chantyal language. In Graham, Thurgood & Randy, LaPolla (eds.), The Sino-Tibetan languages, 315–335. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Ohala, Manjari. 1983. Aspects of Hindi phonology. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.Google Scholar
Ohala, Manjari. 1999. Hindi. Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, 100–103. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Olson, Kenneth Scott. 2001. The phonology and morphology of Mono. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago at Illinois.Google Scholar
Oostendorp, Marc van. 1995. Vowel quality and phonological projection. Ph.D. dissertation, Tilburg University.Google Scholar
Pandharipande, Rajeshwari. 2003. Marathi. In George, Cardona & Jain, Dhanesh (eds.), The Indo-Aryan Languages, 698–728. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Parry, Mair. 1997. Piedmont. In Martin, Maiden & Mair, Parry (eds.), The dialects of Italy, 116–122. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Parve, Merike. 2000. On the acoustics of short monophthongs in Vastseliina (South Estonian). Linguistica Uralica 2000, 241–260.Google Scholar
Paul, Daniel. 2011. A comparative dialectal description of Iranian Taleshi. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Manchester.Google Scholar
Peng, Shu-hui, Chan, Marjori K. M., Tseng, Chiu-yu, Huang, Tsan, Lee, Ok Joo & Beckman, Mary. 2005. Towards a pan-Mandarin system for prosodic transcription. In Sun-Ah, Jun (ed.), Prosodic typology: The phonology of intonation and phrasing, 230–270. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Petek, Bojan, Šuštaršič, Ratislav & Komar, Smiljana. 1996. An acoustic analysis of contemporary vowels of the Standard Slovenian language. ICSLP 96: Fourth International Conference on Spoken Language Processing, Philadelphia, 133–136.Google Scholar
Peterson, David A. 2003. Hakha Lai. In Graham, Thurgood & Randy, LaPolla (eds.), The Sino-Tibetan languages, 409–426. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Picanço, Gessiane Lobato. 2005. Mundurukú: Phonetics, phonology, synchrony, diachrony. Ph.D. dissertation, University of British Columbia.Google Scholar
Priestly, Tom M. S. 1993. Slovene. In Bernard, Comrie & Corbett, Greville G. (eds.), The Slavonic languages, 388–451. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Prinsloo, Claude Pierre. 2000. A comparative acoustic analysis of the long vowels and diphthongs of Afrikaans and South African English. Master’s thesis, University of Pretoria.Google Scholar
Rastorigueva, V. S., Kerimova, A. A., Mamedzade, A. K., Pireiko, L. A. & Edel’man, D. I. 2012. The Gilaki language. Uppsala: Uppsala University.Google Scholar
Recasens, Daniel. 2019. Stressed /e/ centralization and related mid vowel developments in Catalan and elsewhere in the Romania. Transactions of the Philological Society 117, 294–316.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Recasens, Daniel & Espinosa, Aina. 2006a. Dispersion and variability of Catalan vowels. Speech Communication 48, 645–666.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Recasens, Daniel & Espinosa, Aina. 2006b. Articulatory, positional and contextual characteristics of palatal consonants: Evidence from Majorcan Catalan. Journal of Phonetics 34, 295–318.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Renwick, Margaret E. L. 2014. The phonetics and phonology of contrast. The case of the Romanian vowel system. Berlin & Boston: Walter de Gruyter.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roach, Peter. 2004. British English: Received pronunciation. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 34, 239–245.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robson, Barbara & Tegey, Habibullah. 2009. Pashto. In Gernot, Windfuhr (ed.), The Iranian languages, 721–772. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Ronjat, Jules. 1930–1941. Grammaire (h)istorique des parlers provençaux modernes, 4 vols. Montpellier: Société des Langues Romanes.Google Scholar
Sabev, Mitko. 2015. Reduction of unstressed central and back vowels in Contemporary Standard Bulgarian. Proceedings of the 18th International Congress of the Phonetic Sciences, Glasgow University.Google Scholar
Sakel, Jeanette. 2004. A grammar of Mosetén. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schwartz, Jean-Luc, Boë, Louis-Jean, Vallée, Nathalie & Abry, Christian. 1997a. The dispersion-focalization theory of vowel systems. Journal of Phonetics 25, 255–286.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schwartz, Jean-Luc, Boë, Louis-Jean, Vallée, Nathalie & Abry, Christian. 1997b. Major trends in vowel system inventories. Journal of Phonetics 25, 233–253.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shackle, Cristopher. 1972. Punjabi. London: English University Press.Google Scholar
Shinde, D. K., More, Y. N., Sonawane, A. S., Pawade, V. S. & Kulkarni, K. V.. 2017. Comparison of male and female vowel formants by native speakers of Marathi language. Journal of Engineering Research and General Science 5, 173–178.Google Scholar
Sidwell, Paul. 2014. Car Nicobarese. In Paul, Sidwell & Mathias, Jenny (eds.) The handbook of Austroasiatic languages, vol. 2, 1227–1265. London: Brill.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silverman, Daniel. 2011. Schwa. In Marc, van Oostendorp, Ewen, Colin J., Hume, Elizabeth V. & Keren, Rice (eds.), The Blackwell companion to phonology, 628–642. Oxford: Blackwell-Wiley.Google Scholar
Son, Rob van & Louis Pols. 1990. Formant frequencies of Dutch vowels in a text, read at normal and fast rate. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 88, 1683–1693.Google Scholar
Stevens, Kenneth N. 2000. Acoustic phonetics. Cambridge: MIT Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stich, Dominique. 1998. Parlons francoprovençal: Une langue méconnue. Paris: L’Harmattan.Google Scholar
Stone, Gerald. 1993. Cassubian. In Bernard, Comrie & Corbett, Greville G. (eds.), The Slavonic languages, 759–794. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Svantesson, Jean-Olof. 1984. Vowels and diphthongs in Standard Chinese. Lund Working Papers in Linguistics 27, 209–236.Google Scholar
Svantesson, Jean-Olof. 1985. Vowel harmony shift in Mongolian. Lingua 67, 283–327.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Svantesson, Jean-Olof. 1989. Shanghai vowels. Working Papers of Lund University 35, 191–202.Google Scholar
Svantesson, Jean-Olof. 1993. Phonetic correlates of register in Paraok. Reports from Uppsala University, Department of Linguistics 23,102–106.Google Scholar
Svantesson, Jean-Olof, Tsendina, Anna, Karlsson, Anastasia & Franzén, Vivan. 2005. The phonology of Mongolian. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Tabain, Marija & Breen, Gavan. 2011. Central vowels in Central Arrernte: A spectrographic study of a small vowel system. Journal of Phonetics 39, 68–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taylor, J. R. & Uys, J. Z. 1988. Notes on the Afrikaans vowel system. Leuvense Bijdragen 77, 129–149.Google Scholar
Teodorescu, Maria. 1985. An acoustic description of the vowels of Literary Romanian. Studii şi Cercetări Lingvistice 36(6), 463–477.Google Scholar
Teras, Pire. 2003. On the quality change of mid vowels in the Vöru dialect of Estonian. In Maria Josep, Solé, Daniel, Recasens & Joaquín, Romero (eds.), Proceedings of the 15th International Congress of the Phonetic Sciences, 2521–2524. Barcelona: Causal.Google Scholar
Teras, Pire. 2004. Near merger of vowels in Estonian dialects. Proceedings FONETIK, Department of Linguistics, Stockholm University, 32–35.Google Scholar
Ternes, Elmer & Vladimirova-Buhtz, Tatjana. 1999. Bulgarian. Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, 55–57. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Testen, David. 1997. Ossetic phonology. In Kaye, Alan S. & Daniels, Peter T. (eds.), Phonologies of Asia and Africa, vol. 2, 707–731. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns.Google Scholar
Thomas, David & Wanna, Tienmee. 1988. An acoustic study of Northern Khmer vowels. Mon-Khmer Studies 17, 99–108.Google Scholar
Tilkov, Dimitar. 1970. Le vocalisme bulgare. Paris: Klincksieck.Google Scholar
Tingsabadh, Kalaya & Abramson, Arthur S.. 1999. Thai. Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, 147–150. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Tuite, Kevin. 1998. A short descriptive grammar of the Svan language. Montréal: Université de Montréal.Google Scholar
Unseth, Carla. 2009. Vowel harmony in Wolof. Occasional Papers in Applied Linguistics 7, 1–8.Google Scholar
Urbancyck, Suzanne. 2001. Patterns of reduplication in Lushootseed. New York & London: Garland.Google Scholar
Vaillant, André. 1950. Grammaire comparée des langues slaves, vol. 1, Phonétique. Lyon: I.A.C.Google Scholar
Vaysman, Olga. 2009. Segmental alternations and metrical theory. Ph.D. dissertation, MIT.Google Scholar
Velde, Mark L. O. van der. 2008. A grammar of Eton. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ward, Jack Haven. 1973. Phonology, morphophonemics and the dimensions of variation in spoken Balinese. Ph.D. Dissertation, Cornell University.Google Scholar
Watkins, Justin. 2002. The phonetics of Wa: Experimental phonetics, phonology, orthography and sociolinguistics. Canberra: Australian National University.Google Scholar
Watson, Catherine I., Jonathan, Harrington & Evans, Zoe. 1998. An acoustic comparison between New Zealand and Australian English vowels. Australian Journal of Linguistics 18, 185–207.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wayland, Ratree. 1998. An acoustic study of Battambang Khmer vowels. Mon-Khmer Studies 28, 43–62.Google Scholar
Wells, John C. 1963. A study of the formants of the pure vowels of British English. UCL Phonetics Laboratory Progress Report 1–6.Google Scholar
Xia, Liping & Hu, Fang. 2016. Vowels and diphthongs in the Taiyuan Jin Chinese dialect. Interspeech 2016, San Francisco, 993–997.Google Scholar
Yadav, Ramawatar. 1984. Maithili phonetics and phonology. Mainz: Selden & Tamm.Google Scholar
Yadav, Ramawatar. 2003. Maithili. In George, Cardona & Jain, Dhanesh (eds.), The Indo-Aryan languages, 477–497. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Yeon, Jaehoon. 2012. Korean dialects: a general survey. In Nicolas, Tranter (ed.), The languages of Japan and Korea, 168–185. Abingdon and New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Yoder, Brendon E. 2011. Phonological and phonetic aspects of Enganno vowels. Ph.D. dissertation, University of North Dakota.Google Scholar
Yusuf, Suhendra. 1993. Sundanese vowel sounds: A spectrographic study. Master’s thesis, Ohio University.Google Scholar
Zanten, Ellen van & van Heuven, Vincent J.. 1984. The Indonesian vowels as pronounced and perceived by Toba Batak, Sundanese and Javanese speakers. Bijdragen tiot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 140, 497–521.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zec, Dragan. 1988. Sonority constraints on prosodic structure. Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University, Palo Alto.Google Scholar
Zee, Eric. 2003. Frequency analysis of the vowels in Cantonese from 50 male and 50 female speakers. In Maria Josep, Solé, Daniel, Recasens & Joaquín, Romero (eds.), Proceedings of the 15th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences, 1117–1120. Barcelona: Causal.Google Scholar
Zee, Eric & Lee, Wai-Sum. 2001. An acoustic analysis of the vowels in Beijing Mandarin, 7th European Conference on Speech Communication and Technology, Aalborg, 643–646.Google Scholar